



TO 



HIS GRACE 



GEORGE GRANVILLE, DUKE OF SUTHERLAND, 



WITH THE GREATEST RESPECT OF 



J. BOSWORTH. 



/ f \) o 



NOTES ON THE ALPHABETS. 



■ u T. ??™°? character is aUU generoUy used 
in Holland for printing tile Scriptures, and books for 

the lower orders. 

2. Sounded like k, before i 



3. F has the precise sound of tile Bng. /; and 
though V 18 said to be softer, it is generally pro- 
nounced in Ger. and Dm. as/; thus, Tast/os<, vin- 
gor a finger, vin a fin, &c. 

4. Instead of curling the lips, as when enunciating 
the Sng, w, or oo, let them remain in a horizontal 
or natural position, and tlien try to pronounce water 
nearly like valcr, and you have tlie exact sound of the 
Ger. and J>ut. i<\ nb well as the Dun v. 



lalrk 4)f ^l|r^n:Wt<& 



5. The Dill, e 1 
and of s before f. / 


.tsthesr.unilof t before a, o,u, • 
,.j.,sta.s,n£„y. 


6. In Z)a(. d l.as the t.uun.1 of i at the end of 
words: in Dtiii. when rf concludes a word, stands 
between two ,„«el^. or is doubled, it has a softer 
sound. Uke <ll, in .1 .-.s. and /cW. «, ai Eng. the in 
sooUie ; as. Lul. lailer. and vadde, pronounced lathe, 
fatheuvaiththe. Alter (, n, c, the d is scarcelyper- 
ceptiBfe in the common pronunciation, except as 
a peculiar emphasis on the preceding vowel. The 
Dan. g in similar cases has a soft sound like j or y. 


7. H in Dnt. is 

strong guttural, a 
the Scotch loeh „ 

soIUt sounJ than 


as aspirate as in Eng : o is a 
d has the same sound as ch in 
/»/„•, och <i(a«, 0; as, och mon 
hl; tispiration of A approaches to 
)„i. g. The ViU. ch has a Utile 


out'chan.^lin;^ the , 
have the Jireeise « 


ns with the sound of e, and with- 
r^jans, closing the lips with u, you 
unil of the Fr. Ger. and Dut. u. 



9. A very sh.iri) sound, like 1z. 

10. This is a peeuliar sound; G«tah is only an 
approximation to the real pronunciation of the 
name of Giithe, the lanious poet. Though the 
Dan. o, and o with a slanting stroke through it from 
right to left, have the sound of Uie Ft. eu in pen, 
and eu in veuve ; they are both represented m the 
Dictionary by ii, for want of proper type. 

11. Ck.hard, asm chyle. 

12. r y, always hard, as 5 in give: but y before 

y K ^ and X ""'' ""^ ■""'•'''• ^ ""^'""^ " '""^ '^^ 
sound of n in angle, as dyy>Xoi an angel, and 
X„yf a lynx, arc pronounced an'-ge-los and lunx. 

13 In the Russian alphabet tlie following letters 
ate very peculiar and difficult to pronounce, sch, U, 
yer, yu, yu- 

14. The Persians use the Arabic alphabet with 
the addiUon of j pe, s-che, ( — fghaf, and_J ihe. 

15. In Sanscrit, the Grammar of Sir Charles Wil- 
kins, and tlie invaluable DicUonary of Sir Graves C. 
Haughton have been generally followed. The ori- 
ental arrangement of the alphabet is this. 

Surds. Sonants. 

Gutturah ka' kha gaghanga 

j-atatals cha chha ja jha ngS or nya 

Cerebrals tk' fha da dlia na 

Dentals ta fha da dha na 

Labials pa p'ha ba bha ma 

Semitoweuya ra la va 

Sibilants sa sha saha U 

1 ; i« never written but atthe beginning of words, 
being Sways LdShi every consonant. The other 
vowels, and Uie diphthongs are written 

s Fomed by doubling the tongue far '>^l' °°^f 
palate, so as to produce a hollow sound. Bopp caus^ 
them Unguals. .. , j ; 

fcOnly used in the Vedas, and l 
the surd, or Wehih II. 



1 is said to resetablc 



S©UND ®r 



WITH THE 

THE 1, ETlE^S. 







3 . 


















__ 

















Dairk 




DM'isk- 


Tctljmdjuc 


feitn^w 


/r«A 


=— 


^n,i. 


Ueireu 




Fre^ieh 


A,,Z» 


Hifki/.<m 


u«d -1 


JftMO 


SwJu<k 


Worse or 


wTS 


aiU 




<«irrf 


or 


Sanacnt-V, 


tloi^nM 


Sourm, 


Gerrmui. 


Ftmu 


6oUut 


mmy^ 


Itwxr 


;?«,..(«« 


Goj-M 


gr;i-, r<-fflwii|cAa«« 




f.'"A 


wtre^ 


^U 


4u 




a 


< 




E e 




A« 


L 1 




a SIT 


« «"'/f'"/'iw. 


JOs& 


Q^(i 


.1 a 


K 


(^ 


X 


Aa 


%<K 






H 


lun . Hh» 


'^^r.-M.fl ■ - 


Xa 




a 


















« ar ^ 


■b Me. 


^'c : : 


P/b 


4 t) 


V 


B 


Aaoe 


B 


6 'tf 


h\> 


BJ 


^•» 


a. 




"l»^ . . 




6(" 


c'^- 




<■ 


1 




Cc 




f= 4 


_ 














' 




qn 






.=^ 




cha ST olilM? 


>T.^,f? 


'. \ '. 


I 


I 




■r 






Xx 




Xi" 


Cd. 






(^.«yt«tt 


1 . _ - 








a 




VorVA 








_ 






d day _ . 


\- - - 


3 6 


<9"i 


i-« 


^ 


^"« 


><.,+ 


44 


q)6 


AS 


i,i,ih 


1 


aa ? dha S , 


lUmki. 


^iKrruire. 

if- - 


e e: 
















?? 


^\>lk 


_ 


di. S dh,-. ET j 




e© 


«i"e 


e 


e 


- 


f 


I i 


J ( 




TT 


?<.r;f-^ 


f /«■ .. _ 


1 ;■ : 


p> 


5-"f 


f** 


i. 


C 


F 


$"$ 


R 


Qi 


^ i 






J"-!""- - 


1 »<- . . 


1^3 


<M 




i^ 


4 


P 




rf 


^.^ 


n 


gt'i T tlia ^ 


If.**'^ - 








{);: 








Fr 






^-£i 






-b.7iu . . 


■ L,: 


I 1 


f! 


ii 


6 


« 




Dt) 


i\ 


Z=^ 


ir 


" ?f 1 


' V - 


I 1 


3f i 


i 


iVi 


i 


i 


Mh 










i T 


j jahier . 


T. 




1? 




<5 






mat 








V'^ 


jH ,jrji« ^ 


kto,^. _• * _ 


Ec 


k 


K 


t 


F 


Kk 




Kt 


o; V 


75 


ka ^ kW ?^ 


1 m^, . I 


LI 


^( 


1 


K 


i 


^ 


Aa 


Ij 


Al 


J J 


'i, 


la ^11 a 


""-- - I "- 


to in 


fJUm 


Tn 


M 


m 


T 


Mm 


^).!) 


M;. 


f^ 


to £ 


,.,a TT 


n neal_ . 


I - 


N,i 


Tvtv 


n 


N 


n 


K 


Hh 


N)j 


Nv 


Ki j 


f^ 


iw iT iia ^ 




ow note 


1 


Oo' 


<i) « 


o o 


JL 


X) 


1 


O 


Oo 


A»i 


t-^ 


ngft m-» ■T 




ifl Twt - 


f 


O o 




o 












Oo 






6 ^ 




oa _ . 


J 




. 






arta 








_ 






n^« g 




E„2£ 


u.peu 




a" 






d"" 








- 




- 






oo m coal ', i 
^owo.VoH'li r 


t\i 


Utt 


-M- 




it 


h 




lUv 


_ 












0, Xk 






















P r-'f - ^. - 


FP 


nfiv 


P 


fl 


y 


F> 


Hn 


Pp 


nw 


^^ 


TQ 


pa T pM ^ 


p« y««Ar» - 




















*f 


" 




ri. T 


1 9f»«^- 


\ ■ - 




^'tf 


q 


d 


h 


PorVft 










p 


ri #ri -^ 


r rars . 




'»? 


r 


% 


t 


Rit 


P'f 




?! 


O 


•n 




8 sir. , 


1 - _ . 


6 s 


s 


s 


» 


H 


Cc 


If 


I^M 


u? 


s)i *;<w« - 




i\' 










schlir 




e^M. 


& 


t tfrni. . 


rnu : 


T c 


t 


f 


t 


fl 


Tin 


Cc 


T7l 


CJ^-i 


n 


ta IT tti 3 


th fhm _ 










^v 




V 






eof 


•ii i 


£] 


tba CTttui 5 


Hi </(mf - 














ts^ 






Ufy 






J(( »/ /ibt 


.imalpwu 






u u 


ri 






yy 




Y. 








11 {il m ^^z- 


yiA, hvule 






















1 


u ^^ a 5- 


kin f,iU 


Uu 


fttL 


u* 




3 


k 














vW 


r - 




^P^^ 


v'^ 






F 


Bb 










TO.W ^ 


W' VfilUiw 


P > 


^Ivi* 




y 


»'■* 




yex h 




, 


^ 






yikwhoU . 










o 


















X si-x . . 




XX 


X 


_ 


Of 


«M 


yuW 




Sc 








y yw - 


1 


Y^ 


y i 


JM 


_ 


j 




yair 






VJ i 




ya n ■ 


z «««; - 


^« . _ 


Z /. 


y 


z" 


% 


5 


: 33 


- 


zii 


-i 


i 




























.',iio^lMt<umr iUh<r Cunirulff- 



5 SVA MANj^irA 
sxAn a*4>An m 



33' 

OAiVA HNiil 
IS gjih tiH. 

34> OAS 
^frlNS? Al*< 

VAS? 



f 



35. Ai*4>Ai 

* * * * QA! 



QAh ifN iMli 

An AiVAM, ' 



I. KidgA 

<I>AlKh KA6 ' 

iXVAKA SA 
AA-rA AeiK 

NA BAXTIbK 






Tom. II, 



• pro r^cp: 



17. * * * itr A 

QAh IN ANdVA 

AAiXe. 

* 18. QAKAi MAr 

Mli^^AAlM MA 

19. m 12; VIS SI A 
AinKANS AK riK 
r*s ^A^1^eAIlf^ is 
61 riA^iAn IK j:K 



20. QABAi rK6 

^ mAA ri|: i'MMA 

AKArKGi iNA *> 

hAHK^A l^tlNINS ^ 

21. m PAginK. 
AK rAgiiiKAis A) 



* Legere'volult ngfler * 
pro I^KA^QIS, quod fe 
occurrit, - ponentis, Ihre, 
^ Error amanuenfis, pro ^• 



PAUL! Epiftola ad Romanos* 
Gap. XL 

33. * * * * QAh VITliKHQlS* njTs 33. • • * ♦ &fcieilti*Dei: 

OMVA flNnSSniAAxaA '■ SlA STAn^S Quam inenarrabUia funt judicia 

is QAh tlNlSlAAlSTldAl Vir$lS is ! ejus, & non adfequends viae ejus ! 

34- OAS AOK n]:KnmI»A i:KA«i»i 34. Quis enim cognovit intd- 

«l:INS? AltP^An OAS IMMA KArmeiS ledlum domini ? aut quis ei confi. 

VAS ? liarius fuit ?■ 

• 

35. Ai4»(J>Ati (3AS TfMMA J:KnM«:^5l 35. Aut "quis ci prius dedit? 
}:«•«» Q>Vh IrKAriAAAl^An IMMA. Et retribuctur ilH. ' 

36. nST6 nS TfMMA QAh *PAlKh IMA 36. QuonUm ex illo^ & per il- 
QAh I'M i'MMA AAAA iMMnh vnAtfinS lum, & in. illo omnia. lUi gloria 

i^nAlVAM. AM6N. in fcciila;; Arrien. 



AP, 



xlr. 



BiAqA Nrt IZVIS ]SK52<I>KQhS I. Ro^ *eil?r'«Jf!riKr^i per 

[<f»AlKh BA6I(|>6IN rcJjS nSriJSAM A6IKA mlfericordliam Dei, exhibere corpo- 

iVAKA SAna UHpANA_ VeihANA VAI- ra veftra fiioftiam vivam, fanftam, 

[AA-rAA6lKAiaANA''ril>A AW^A*l»AhTA- beneplacentem Deo, rationabilem 

lA KA^JTINASSn *l^VAJ^AA- cultum ve ftrUm. 

Tom. JI, Lllillll 2. NX 

W, 

pro rxtS. k pro SinA. • pro I:AnimS. « pro rx»J»A * p«> iSiVAKAHA. 



I M^ A6IK SIQIIM IN 5- Ita multi unum corpus fumw* 
^^OAKS/iZnh ANiJlAK. Chrido; attamen unufquifque aitdr, 



NdVAlK^QA nl^S AK 17. * * * in confpeau Dei, 
iK^QA MAnNB a A- fed etiam in confpedu hominum 

omnium. 

1 VAIK^AN nS 12: VIS 18. Si potuerit fieri ex vobis, 
Ml^j^M rAVA'K^I hA- cum omnibus hominibus pacem ha- 

bentes. 

.BANS rAVKlSAW^AwS 19. Non vos ipfos vindicanto. 
C*, STA* tliVAlK * * * diledi, fed date locum ir^ Dei ; 
r A^K MIS f:KAV^ITJJ Scriptum eft enim, Mihi vindidba,' 
-AriAcVA aiil>ltl> ^A. ut retribuam j Ego retribuam, dic?t 

dominus. 

^52 fr'IQAi^cV i tI)6lNAA 20. Si efurierit inimicum tuum, 

"lil> QAKAl ^AilKSQAl cibum da illi, & fi fitierit, potu're- 

ITA AtlK TAMQANdS fice ilium 5 hoc enim faciens, carbo 

CIKIS/ANA hA^^Kltfi IS. nes ignis congeres in caput ejus. 

\lZAt1 Al^ tlNtJiIlltliA 21. Ne vincare a malo,. fed 

: ^ItliJ^A nNiJiHHll. vincas a bono malum. 

C A P' 



* * * ill A^A- f Manifefta eft librarii ofcitantia, ]:KAMA^QI' 
pius tarn in Cod. Arg. quam hie in fequentibus, in fignifications t» voog^ n 



pro 



XKiSTAfi. 



pro 



p^k^. 



pro ipeiNANA 



tAT. Ihre, 



( 



5- SyA MANj^rAl Ain AGIK SignM 'i'M 5, Itamultiunum corpus fu 
XAn A«f»iI»A»^ M^OAK^lXnh ANipAK- Chrifto; attamen UBurquifqt 



,7. * • • iir ANdVAlKt|>QA r^^ AK. 17. • * • in confpeftu 3 
QAh IN AN^VAlK^QA MAnNG a A- ^ fed etiam in confpeftu homir 
'AAi%6- * omnium. 



' 18. gA.BAi MAri vAiK«I»An ns izvis 
Mi«^, JpdAAiM mAnnAm rAVAiK4»i hA- 
^asl^RA^S. 

19. Ni i'Z.^iS SiAbAns tAVKisAnAAnS 
AinBAHS AK biBiip, STA«I> 4»VAiK. * * • 
r^s rAWeAnf» i'ST ahk mi« ^zKAV^it^j 
61 riAdAn IK I^KAriAAA ai<i>i«p »irA. 



20. QABAi rlC6A5^ i:igA*»A • «I»6InAA 
k mAA. ri|: iHMA 1* gABAi »I»AnKSQAi 
aKArKGi i'MA <f>ATA AHk TAngANd.s 
hAnK^A |:nNiNS icikiS/AnA hAnBufi is. 



18. Si potBcrit fieri ex voliiii^ 
cum omnibus hominibus pacem ha- 
bentes. 

19. Non vos ipfos vindicaateS; 
dilefti, fed date locum iras Dei: 
Scrlptum eft enim, Mihi vindifta, 
ut retribuam •, Ego retribuam, dfcit 
dominus. 

20. Si efurierit JBimicura tuurn, 
cibum da illi, & fi fitierit, potu i 
fice ilium ; hoc enim faciens, carb.^ 
ncs ignis congeres in caput ejus. 



21. NI rAQinK,\l3^An AJ: nN4»in<|»A 2»- Ne vincare a malo,. fed 
AK rAginxAXS Al- ^PmtpA nNipintl*. vincas a bono malum. 

Cap 



« Legere'voluit ngfter » * * * ijl A^A- ' Manifefta eft Hbrarii ofcitantia, |:KAMA4»QI^. 
pro pKA*PgiS, qudd lapius tarn in Cod. Arg. quam hie in fequentibus, in llgnificatione tS vooj, i>J2 
occurrit, ^ponentis, Ihre. s pro XKISTAW. 

^ Error amanuenfis, pro MAT. Ihrtf 



» pro ^AW- * pro tpeiNAWAf 



A MAP OF EUROPEAN LANGUAGES. 



The adjoining Map gives a local view of the chief European families of languages and their 
dialects. Those spoken by the Japhetic race are noticed in the Table, Part I. § 19 ; but a short 
abstract of the Map may be useful. Beginning then on the west, we have the following families 
of languages and their dialects. 

1. The Celtic X^ialectS to the west include the Gaelic or Highland Scotch, spoken 
in the Highlands ; the Erse or Irish, in Ireland ; the Manks in the Isle of Man ; the Welsh 
in Wales J Cornish in Cornwall; and the Armorican in Britany. 

2. The Iiatin Dialects are to the south. From their supposed Grecian origin, the 
Latin dialects are also sometimes designated Grceco-Latin ; the former appellation is here 
preferred, as most of the languages included in this division are evidently formed directly 
from the Latin. In the Latin or Graeco-Latin are comprehended the Portuguese, Spanish, 
French, Italian, and modern Greek, spoken in their respective countries. 

3. The G-ermaniC Dialects are in the middle. This family of languages is divided 
into Low and High German. The Low-German comprehends the English with its parent, the 
Anglo-Saxon, gradually introduced into Britain by the Jutes, Saxons, and Angles 

Jutes.* Angles.J 

L Jutcs in Kent, &c. about a.d. 449 5. East-Anglia in Norfolk, &c. about a.d. 527 
SAXONS.f 6. Bernicia in Northumberland, &c. . . 547 

2. South -Saxons in Sussex . . 491 7. Deira in Yorkshire, &c 559 

3. West-SaxonsinHampshire,&c. 519 8. Mercia in Derbyshire, &c. . . • . 586 

4. East-Saxons in Essex, &c. . 527 

The other Low-German Languages were the Dutch, with the dialects of Flanders, Gelder- 
land, Overysel, and Friesland, the language of Westphalia, Honovet, Holstein, Sleswick, 
South Jutland, Mecklenburg, Magdeburg, Brandenburg, Pomerania, Prussia, Courland, 
Livonia, Estonia. The High-German in the south or hilly part of Germany, including the 
High-Saxon, Hessian, Thuringian, Francic (in Franconia), Rhinish, Alsacian, Bavarian, 
Silesian, Transilvanian, Suavian, Alemanic, Austrian, Tirolese, Swiss, and Moeso-Gothic. 

4. The Scandinavian Dialects in the north, comprehend the Icelandic formed 
from the Old Danish (Danska tunga); the modern Danish, Norwegian, Swedish, Greendland- 
ish, Ferroe, Shetlandish, and Orkneyan, spoken in their respective countries and islands. 

5. The Sclavonic or Slavic Dialects in the north-west, are the Russian, Ser- 
vian, Croatian, Polish, Bohemian, &c., Lettish or Lithuanian, dialectsof Wilna, Samogitia, &c. 

6. Some consider the Sclavonic to be quite distinct from the Finnish, Laplandic, Siberian, 
Ostiakian, Hungarian or Magyarian, Twastian, and Carelian. The earliest station in which 
they have been found is between the Caucasian and the Oural mountains.§ 

7. Some European and other languages cannot be easily classed with the Sanscrit. ,The 
Basque is a remnant of the Old Iberian or Spanish, now spoken in Biscay and NavarreMn 
Spain, and Lower Navarre, Labour, and Soule in France. The Basque seems to be a primi- 
tive language, but still to have some affinity with the Shemitic family.|| Turkish is of Tartar 
origin, and allied to the Shemitic.^ 

An alphabetic list of places marked upon the Map with letters. 
Anglen ... a III. § 1 Franconia . . o II § 6 Runamo . . . h XII § 24 
Ansbach . . . i X § 76 Friesland . . a IV § 1 Saxony (Lower) . ggg IV § 3t 

Austrian States nnn II § 5 Holstein . . . c II § 4 (Upper) . jjj II § 5 

Baden . . . 11 II § 5 Jutland (north) . e IV § 41 Skanderburg . . e IV § 45 

Bamberg . . kk II § 6 (south) . d III § 3 Sleswick or south Jut. d III § 1 

Brunswick . . i II § 4 Liim (Gulph of) g IV § 45 Thanet (Isle of) . 6 III § 3 
ChersonesusCimb.de IV § 41 Mayence . . . c II § 6 Westphalia . . . hh II § 4 
Cleves . . . dU^e Mecklinburg . . f II § 4 Wiburg . . . . / IV § 45 
Flanders . . . p II § 4 Oldenburg . . 6 II § 4 Wurtenburg . . . m II § 5. 

It ought to be observed, that as, one dialect often gradually melts into another, it is impos- 
sible to mark with precision where one terminates and another begins. So great has been the 
difficulty and uncertainty in delineating the extent of dialects, that several times the attempt 
was almost relinquished. Though conscious of exposure to severe criticism, the plan has been 
carried into effect, only from the conviction that many will be glad to obtain, by a mere glance 
of the eye, that information which it has cost much laborious research to delineate on so small 

map even in this imperfect manner. 



i 



• Anglo-Saxon, III. § 3. t lb. III. § 4. J lb. III. § 5—7. 

§ See Prichard's Celtic Nations, p. 17. 
II Balbi's Atlas Eth., Tables X. XI. § 154. Malte Brun's Geog. vol. vi. bk. xcvi. A. p. 99. Prichard's Celt. 
p. 8, note c. 
IT Balbi's Atlas Eth., Table II. § 6, and VIII. § 124. 



PREFACE 



I.— THE IMPORTANCE OF A CLOSE INVESTIGATION OF LANGUAGES IN CORROBORATING 
REVELATION, AND TRACING THE ORIGIN AND AFFINITY OF NATIONS.— ALL 
LANGUAGES HAVE A DISTANT VERBAL RESEMBLANCE, INDICATING A PRIMITIVE 
CONNEXION.— THERE IS ALSO A GREAT DIVERSITY IN THE FORM AND STRUCTURE 
OF LANGUAGES, WHICH IS MOST RATIONALLY ACCOUNTED FOR BY THE CONFUSION 
RECORDED BY MOSES.— LANGUAGES ARE DIVIDED INTO CLASSES, SUCH AS THOSE 
SPOKEN BY THE DESCENDANTS OF SHEM, HAM, AND JAPHETH.— THE PEOPLE AND ^ 
LANGUAGES' OF EUROPE WERE OF JAPHETIC ORIGIN.— THE FIRST TRIBES THAT 
ENTERED EUROPE WERE CELTS,— THE NEXT WERE THE TEUTONI OR GERMANS, — 
AND THE THIRD THE SCLAVONIANS.— AS WE ARE MOST CONCERNED WITH THE 
TEUTONIC, OR GERMAN TRIBES, THEY CLAIM A PARTICULAR NOTICE. 

1 . It is mind^ understanding, or the power of reasoning, which is the 
distinguishing property of man. The mind is a man's self; by it we are 
allied to the highest intelligence. Can it then be unimportant for an 
intellectual being to examine the operations of the mind? But its opera- 
tions or thoughts are so quick and fugitive, that no real apprehension of 
them can be obtained, except by their representatives, that is, by words. 
These, when spoken, quickly vanish from the mind. It is only when 
words are written, that they become tangible ; they are then the lasting 
representatives or signs of ideas. Those, therefore, who philosophically 
and effectually examine the structure and the right meaning of words, 
the instruments of thought, are most likely to have the clearest appre- 
hension of the mental powers and their operations. 

2. Words, as the instruments for expressing thoughts,* are the con- 
stituent parts of language. It is by language that the feelings, experience, 
and indeed the whole mind of individuals, can be communicated and made 
the property of our whole species. The most sublime thoughts and extensive 

♦ Whately's Elements of Logic, Ch. ii. p. 55. 



11 ORIGINALLY ONK LANGUAGE. 

knowledge of those who have been favoured with the highest order of 
intellect, are in their writings concentrated and perpetuated : thus the ex- 
alted endowment of reason is perfected by the gift of rational language. 

3. The minute investigation of language is not only important in 
examining the mental powers^ but in bearing its testimony to the truth 
of Revelation, and in tracing the origin and affinity of nations. 

4. The physical history of man, the researches of the most eminent 
geologists, the investigations of the most able philosophers, and the close 
and patient examination of all the phenomena of nature, are so many dis- 
tinct confirmations of the Mosaic record. At present we need only refer 
to the physical or natural history of man.* Here every candid inquirer 
is led to the conclusion, that all the diversities of the human race 
originally sprang from one father and mother; and hence we reasonably 
infer, that this primitive pair had one primitive language. We now find 
a great diversity of tongues. To account for this diversity, philosophers 
have started diflferent theories : f but there is no theory which so satis- 
factorily accounts for the variety of languages, and yet the similarity 
observable in their fragments, as the plain statement of facts recorded by 
Moses. 

5. "The whole earth was of one language and one speech," or of one 
li2D,X and of like words. § "And it came to pass, as they (the families 
of the sons of Noah) journeyed from the east, that they found a plain in 
the land of Shinar; and they dwelt there." Because the people said, "Let 
us build us a city and a tower, whose top may reach unto heaven ; and let 
us make us a name, lest we be scattered abroad upon the face of the 
whole earth," when the Lord had determined that they should be dis- 
persed, and thus " replenish the earth," God " confounded their lip, 
language, or pronunciation, that they could not understand one another's 
speech." " Therefore is the name of it called Babel; because the Lord 
did there confound the language of all the earth; and from thence did the 
Lord scatter them abroad upon the face of all the earth." (Gen. xi. 1, 2, 
4,7,9.) 

6. On a close examination and analysis of languages, even as we 
find them at the present day, nearly forty-two centuries after the confusion. 



* Researches into the Pltysical History of ManJdnd, by C. J. Prichard, M.D., F.R.S., &c. 

t Some French naturalists and physiologists, with a few writers on history and antiquities 
in Germany, speak of the Adamic race as of one among many distinct creations. Von 
Humboldt speaks of the Americans as a distinct stock. Malte Brun has taken it for granted 
that each part of the earth had its own race, of whose origin it was in vain to inquire. 
Niebuhr is of the same opinion as to the early inhabitants of Italy. — Dr. Prichard's Eastern 
Origin of the Celtic Nations, 8vo. Oxford, 1831. 

X Heb. nnS nSti? ynSrrbD ^H^M Septuagint Kai ?> -n-daa »j yri xelXos iv: Vulgate 
Erat autem terra labii unius. — HDtt? <^ ^^P) ^«^^'> margin ; labium, sermo, ora. 

§ Heb. C'^inS C'l^n J Septuagi7it Kai^'cpcovi] ^la Trdai: Vulgate et sermonum eo- 
rundem. — D>*7nS P^- one*, alike, the same, from ^nW o"^' ^rab. ^tXc-l pi. ones, from Jo-l 
one. — D>1^"T words, speech, from "nm « word, matter, thing; verbum, res, aliquid. 



PROOFS J^-ROM PRIlSENT RESEMBLANCES. Ill 

there are, in almost every tongue, a few fragments and whole words so 
similar, as to indicate an original connexion. The great diversity in their 
vocabularies and grammatical structure is still more apparent. The 
facts recorded by the Hebrew legislator of one original language, the 
subsequent confusion of lip or pronunciation, and the consequent dis- 
persion, alone account for this pervading identity or resemblance, and 
the striking diversity.* Both these claim a brief notice. 

7. First, there are resemblances or identities still observable in the 
severed fragments of an original language. These occur most frequently 
in Words of the commonest use. Such words, if not composed exactly 
of the same letters, are from letters of the same organ, or from those 
which are interchangeable. 

8. A slight inspection of the ten numerals, even in a few languages, 
will prove that they had an original connexion. 

* Those who wish to see this subject fully and satisfactorily discussed, are referred to the 
admirable papers of Sharon Turner, Esq., F.S.A. On the Affinities and Diversities in the Languages 
of the World, and on their Primeval Cause, in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Literature of 
the United Kingdom, Vol. I. Part I. 4to. 1827. p. 17—106, and Vol. II. Part II. 1834, p. 252— 
262. He has arranged the words used to denote Father in more than five hundred languages. 
He has also made a similar classification of the various terms to designate Mother, as well as 
the first two numerals. Mr. Turner observes : " In my letters on the first and second numerals, 
it was endeavoured to show, that the words which various nations have used to express them, 
were either simple sounds of one syllable, or compound terms resolvable frequently into these 
simpler elements, and most probably always made from them ; but a more important object 
was to evince, that both the elementary and the composite sounds have resemblances and 
connected analogies, which, although used by nations that were strangers to each other, 
were too numerous to have been accidental. 

I intimated that the languages or people, among whom such similarities prevailed, however 
disparted and divergent they had been, or now were, must have had some ancient and 
primeval consanguinity. — In meditating on this subject, it occurred to me, that if the mind 
were not pursuing an illusory idea, the same facts and the same intimation would appear as 
strikingly in some other words, as they were visible in the numerals. This impression, 
and the desire neither to mislead, nor to be misled, have induced me to observe, whether the 
words that are used in the different languages of the world to express the first, the dearest, 
the most universal, and the most lasting relations of life, Father and Mother, would be found 
to confirm, or overthrow the principles suggested. The words were arranged into classes, 
according to their primitive or more simple elements. These classes demonstrate that the 
common use of sounds to express the same ideas, must have had some common origin, and 
are evidences of a common and early aflSnity. While each class proves a similarity or an 
identity, the numerous classes indicate great diversity. Identity without diversity would 
have proved only a common derivation, and diversity without identities would disprove 
community of origin. But so much partial identity and resemblance remaining, at this 
advanced period of the world, visible amid so much striking and general disparity, exactly coin- 
cides with the Hebrew statement of an anterior unity, and of a subsequent confusion, abruption, 
and dispersion. 

Amongst his deductions Mr. Turner observes, that the "primeval language has not been 
anywhere preserved, but that fragments of it must, from the common origin of all, everywhere 
exist; that these fragments will indicate the original derivation and kindredship of all ; 
and that some direct causation of no common agency has operated to begin, and has so 
permanently affected mankind, as to produce a striking and universally experienced diversity." 
A gentleman, whose erudition is universally acknowledged, and whose opinions, from his 
extensive lingual knowledge, and especially from his critical acquaintance with the oriental 
tongues, deserve the greatest attention, has come to this conclusion; for he has stated 
("De oorspronkelijke taal, wier oudste dochter het Sanskrit is, de vruchtbare moeder van 
zoovele dialekten, bestaat niet meer,") the original language, of which the oldest daughter 
is the Sanscrit, the fruitful mother of so many dialects, exists no longer. — Professor Hamaker's 
Akademische voorlezingen, S^-c. Leyden, 8vo. 1835, p. 7. These interesting lectures have 
just appeared; English and German translations of them are preparing for the press. 
Ere long we hope to see Professor Hamaker's two other learned works : A Comparison of the 
Radical Words of the Sanscrit with those of other Dialects; and. Grammatical Remarks on the Indo- 
Germanic Languages — on both of which he has for some time been diligently, and it may be 
added, very successfully engaged. 



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FURTHER PROOFS. V 

9. By the common change of t into d, all the words in the different 
languages denoting two and three, are evidently cognate, or from one 
common source. The 8ans. chatur ; Erse keathair ; Pers. chehaur ; 
72w5. chetyre ; Grk.Tsrrapegf iriffvpEQ-, M^e/. pedwar ; Za^. quatuor ; O^ca?? 
petor; Moes. fidwor; Old High Ger. fiuuar; A.-S. feovver ; Dut. vier; 
Dan. fire; Eng. four, by the change of ch, k, q, t, tt, p, and/, have 
a distant connexion.* By a slight change of lip or pronunciation, the 
other numerals appear to be cognate. 

10. The Heb. ^i^ ses six, seems to be allied to the Sans, shash ; the 
Chaldee ^H^^H *^^^^ third, to the Sans, tritaya. Other words have 
evidently a connexion : the JHeb. J^^^ bit a house, dwelling ; Chaldee 
j^');2 ^^t to tarry, dwell, often used in the Targum for v^ lun ; in Arab. 
ei^L) bat or e:^oo beit to tarry, be situated; the Erse beith; WeL bydh, 

b6d ; Teutonic be, beon to be; and the Sans, verbal root ^ bhu, 
whence bhavami I am, are allied. — The Heh. j^^ is; Wei. oes he is; 
Erse is, as is me / am, seems connected with the Sans, verbal root 3f H 
as, whence we have Sans, asmi, asi, asti sum, es,est; Grk. itfxi \_eaijii] 

11. Some Coptic words are very similar to Hebrew. 

Coptic. Hebrew. 

^Xks alei to go up, ^^^ ole to go up. 

A-Xonf alou a boy, ^^^ oul an infant, ^^^^ oull a boy. 

^n an not, y\^ ain not, 

^rtOK anok /, "^^^j.^ anki /. 

A.rton anon we, tl^il^i^ anene, or nj^ anen, pH enen ChLwe 

A.pex areg terminus, V*)^ arej terra, regio. 

<LpKE. areb a pledge, hlH^ orbe a pledge. 

■S-GA bel to destroy, Hl'2 ^^^ ^^ wear, waste away. 

.^.epl beri new, ^ , 

_ /? ^^r . Y i^l^ bra to create. 

ep-.CLepi to renew, / ^ i-i 

CIOtX eioul a stag, ^^^ ail a stag. 

O^lX thai a hill, ^7]^ tel a heap. 

oXcoJUL thlomy^rroz^^, j^^j^ Xoim furrows. 

IA.pO iaro a river, "j^^ iar a river. 

\OJX. iom the sea, Q^ im the sea. 

K^oj kash a reed, [^fp qes stubble, straw, 8fc. 

* See the change of letters admirahly proved in the erudite and invaluable work of 
Dr. Prichard, On the Eastern Origin of the Celtic Nations, p. 27 — 91, 8vo. Oxford, I80I, 
to whose work the preceding table is much indebted. The regular interchange of con- 
sonants, and the laws that influence the vowel system, are also satisfactorily proved and fully 
treated by Dr. James Grimm in his Deutsche Grammatik, Gottingen, 1822, 8vo. Vol. I. p. 581, 
584, 578 ; and in Professor Schmitthenner's valuable Introduction to his short German 
Dictionary. No one who has omitted to examine what these learned and laborious authors 
have written, ought to reject, and much less ridicule, the systematic and regular change of 
vowels and consonants. 

t See more examples in Dr. Prichard's Celtic Nations, p. 192 — 194. 



VI DIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES. 

12. The table of numerals, with the preceding short collection of 
examples, may be sufficient to show that there are many words which are 
of cognate origin, even in languages often deemed the most dissimilar. 
It is not contended with the ancient fathers that the Hehreio is the 
primitive tongue, or with the modern philosophers that it is the Sanscrit; 
for it appears, on the evidence of Moses,* and from the conclusion of 
eminent philologists, that the original language of our first parents no 
longer exists. The similarity of the words previously cited, prove that 
these languages originally proceeded from one common source, and they 
thus verify that part of the Mosaic history which declares, that *^ the whole 
earth was of one language." 

13. It is now necessary to advert to the vast diversity of languages, 
which is satisfactorily accounted for by the confusion of lip or pro- 
nunciation. Those who pronounced their words in the same manner, 
separating from those they could not understand, would naturally unite 
together, and form distinct tribes. In addition to the passages previously 
cited relative to the dispersion, Moses adds: "By these (the sons of 
Ja'pheth) were the isles of the Gentiles (Europe) divided in their lands, 
every one after his tongue, after their families, in their nations. — These 
are the sons of Ham, after their families, after their tongues, in their 
countries, and in their nations. — These are the sons of Shem, after their 
families, after their tongues, in their lands, after their nations." (Gen. x. 
5, 20, 31.) 

14. Do they, who reject these and the preceding passages of the Sacred 
History, on account of their reference to a supernatural agency, suggest 
that various languages existed from the beginning, and that the faculty of 
expressing ideas by a different language was given to distinct creations 
of men in each particular region of the earth ? This w^ould imply, "that 
the world contained from the beginning, not three or four, as some writers 
are willing to believe, but some hundreds, and perhaps thousands of 
different human races, "f These numerous creations must refer to 
a supernatural agency as many times more miraculous than the event 
recorded by Moses, as the miracle, according to their theory, was 
numerically repeated. 

15. Whatever diversity of opinion there may have been, as to the 
origin of the great variety of tongues, the most eminent philologists have 
generally divided languages into classes, distinguished by remarkable 
differences in their grammatical structure and vocabularies. 

16. One of these classes of languages is the Shemitic, or Semetic, so 
called from the supposition that the race of Shem alone spoke the 
language so denominated. Objections may be made to the term, as the 

• Gen. xi. 1, 6, 7, 9; and Gen. x. 5, 20, 31. See § 6, note +. 

t The languages of the African nations, according to Seetzen, who has made the most 
extensive and original researches into this subject, amount to 100 or 150. In America, there 
are said to be 1500 idioms, " notabilmente diversi." Such was the opinion of Lopez, 
a missionary of great knowledge in the languages both of South and North America. See 
Seetzen's Letters in Von Zach's Monathliche Correspondenz , 1810, p. 328 ; Hervas's Catalogo 
delle Lingue, p. 11; and Dr. Prichard's Celtic Nations, p. 11. 



Coptic, -j 



JAPHETIC LANGUAGES. VII 

Phoenicians or Canaanites, who took their origin from Ham, spoke 
a Shemitic dialect ; but as Shemitic is in general use and well under- 
stood, it is best to retain it. The race of Shem, who were much devoted 
to a pastoral life, spread over the finest part of Middle and Upper Asia, 
over Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Assyria. The following languages, 
distinguished by being written from right to left, and forming their gram- 
matical connexions by prefixes and postfixes, are of the Shemitic race r — 

Shemitic Languages. 

TT 1. f Chaldee, 

Hebrew, < o • 

' ( Syriac, 

Arabic, 
Aramaean, &c. 

17. The descendants of Ham were seafaring men, who founded the 
republics of Tyre, Sidon, Carthage, &c. Little appears to be known of 
the languages used by the race of Ham. Some name the following : — 

The Dialect of Ancient Egypt. 
Sahidic, 
Bashmuric, 

The numerous African dialects spoken by the Kdbyles 
of Mauritania, the Tuarik of the Great Desert, the 
Felatahs of Nigritia, the Foulahs of the Senegal, &c. 

18. Another class of idioms is the Japhetic, by some called Cauca- 
sian, from the supposition that the primitive seat of this race was near Mount 
Caucasus ; by others denominated Indo-Germanic, indicating that all the 
Germanic tongues had an Indian origin. The compound Indo-Germanic, 
by not including the Celtic or Welsh, an important branch of these 
idioms, has been considered defective. A word of more extended 
signification has been adopted, namely, Indo-European,* to denote all 
those European languages which are clearly cognate with the Sanscrit, or 
ancient language of India. Other etymologists have proposed Arian or 
Persian, as it designates their origin amongst the Arians, Irenians, or 
Persians.! As some Asiatic as well as European dialects ought to be 
included in the name, it may be better to retain the old term Japhetic, 
comprising all the supposed descendants of Japheth, who diverged from 
Shinar throughout Asia and Europe ; from the banks of the Ganges to 
the Atlantic ocean, and from the shores of Iceland to the Mediterranean 
Sea. They seem to have passed to the north of the great range of the 
Taurus, as far as the Eastern ocean, and probably passed over Behring's 
straits from Kamschatka to America^ 

19. A tabular arrangement will best show the extent of the lan- 
guages of the Japhetic race. 

* Dr. Prichard's Eastern Origin of the Celtic Nations, p. 19. 

f Kurzes DeutschesWorterbuch/wr Etymologie, Synonymik und Orthographie von Friedrich 
Schmitthenner, 8vo. Darmstadt, 1834, p. 24. 

X Dr. Hales's Analysis of Chronology, Vol. I. p. 352. 

A singular congruity is said to exist in all the American languages, from the north to 
the southern extremity of the continent. They may be reduced to a few great divisions, 
several of which extend as radii from a common centre in the north western part near 
Behring's straits. — Dr. Prichard's Eastern Origin of the Celtic Nations, p. 6. 



JAPHETIC LANGUAGES CONNECTED WITH SANSCRIT. 



IX 



20. Little need be said here of the Asiatic nations proceeding 
from Japhet: a casual remark, however, may be admitted upon the 
language of the Hindoos. The Sanscrit * is that ancient tongue which 
once prevailed throughout all Hindoostan, from the Gulf of Bengal to 
the Arabian Sea, and from the southern extremity of the country to 
the Himalaya Mountains on the north. The Sanscrit is the most 
compositive, flexible, and complete language yet known. It admits 
of being perfectly analysed, by merely reducing its compound words to 
simple elements which exist in the language itself It contains the 
roots of the various European dialects, of the Latin, Greek, Celtic, 
German, and Sclavonic. Having all its words composed of its own 
elements, and containing no exotic terms, proves it to be very near 
its primitive state, f The Sanscrit is, therefore, placed at the commence- 
ment of the languages here called Japhetic. That all these are closely 
connected with the Sanscrit, will clearly appear from a few examples. 



EXAMPLES. 



Sanscrit. 


Greek. 


Latin. 


Persian. 


German. 


Anglo-Sax. 


Dutch. 


Danish. 


English. 




VTTSp 


super 


jt^xc aboor 


ober 


ofer 


over 


over 


over 


:i""M ■'Cupar 


UTT^ j5nu 


yovv 


genu 


yi; zano 


knie 


cneow 


knie 


knae 


knee 


«-jc| nawam 


V£OV 


novum 


y new 


neu 


niwe 


nieuw 


nv 


new 


<r\m nama 


ovo/ma 


nomen 


(j nam 


nahme 


nama 


naam 


navn 


name 


?f)-no 


Vt] 


non 


JO neh 


nein 


na 


neen 


nej 


no 


fq^pitr 


iran-np 


pater 


.t^j padr 


vater 


faeder 


vader 


fader 


father 


i-l b| mush a 


yUVS 


mus 


/j)i.fc^ moosh 


maus 


mus 


muis 


muus 


mouse 


Zr3J yugam 


^Euyos 


jugum 


?yl y°g^ 


joch 


geoc 


juk 





yoke: 



Sans. 3ll^^ krimilam ; Grk. KafxekoQ ; Lat. camelum ; Heb. ^J2il 
gemel ; Ger. kamel ; Eng. camel, — Sans. TJ^"^ yuwanah, young : 
Lat. \\iMQx\\?,\ ,Pers. [ juwan; 6rer. jungj Heb. y;^ )^\xx\(\a suck- 
ling, a twig, sucker; j^.-S. geong young; Plat, junk; Dut. jong; 
Swed. Dan. ung ; TVel. jeuangc. — Sans. 3ff<f jani a woman ; Celtic 



* Sanscrit, in derivation and sound, is very similar to o-vy/c/otTos joined together, united. 
Hence it is used for a whole, so completely possessing all its parts, as in its union, parts, 
or decomposition, to be finished or perfect. — Professor Hamaker's Voorlezingen, p. (3. 

t Lieut. Col. Vans Kennedy's Researches, p. 196. 

X See many more examples in Lieut. Col. Vans Kennedy's Researches, p. 278. 



X THE CELTS AND TEUTONI — ORIGIN OF. 

gean ; i?w5. jena; Grk. yw-i); Pers. ; • ziinn^. — Sans, ^'\^i matre; 
Pers. ^'^ madr ; Rus. mater ; Celtic, Erse mathair ; Grk. firirrfp ; 
Lat. mater; Ger. mutter; Dut. moeder; j^.-S. modor; Dan. Swed. 
moder. — Sans. S^TfJ bhratre ; Rus. bratr ; Celtic, Wei. brawd ; Erse 
brathair ; Irish brutha ; Grk. (ppa-rjp ; Lat. frater ; Fr. fr^tre,, frere ; 
Pers. j\. bradr; Ta?\ bruder; Ger. bruder; Moes. hrothar ; A.-S. 
broker; Z)z<^. breeder ; Dan. Swed. broder; Icel. brodur; Ar7n. breiir; 
Ens- brother.* 

21. The preceding remarks are by no means intended to serve as a 
complete classification of languages ; they only afford a very superficial 
view, for the monosyllabic, or the Chinese, Indo-Chinese, &c. are entirely 
omitted. What is advanced relative to the inhabitants and languages of 
Europe must be more precise. 

22. Europe appears to have been gradually occupied by successive 
waves of population from the east. Those now located most to the 
west, the Celts, were amongst the tribes who first left Asia^ and were 
impelled westward by succeeding emigrations, and thus spread over 
a considerable part of Europe. The Celts, or Celtae, were a people of 
Gaul, who, at a very early period, crossed the straits of Dover, and 
entered the British Isles. The ancient Britons were therefore Celts, 
who were subsequently conquered by the Romans, and then by the 
Saxons, and driven into Wales and Cornwal. Britain must have been 
inhabited even before the Trojan war, more than 1200 years before the 
Christian era, as tin was then brought from Britain by the Phoenicians, f 
It has been clearly proved that the Celtic dialects are of cognate origin 
with the Sanscrit, though diflfering so much in structure as to be distinct 
from the Teutonic or German.:]: 

23. The Teutonic, German, or Gothic tribes, were the second source of 
European population. Like their predecessors, the Celts, these tribes 
came out of Asia into Europe over the Kimraerian Bosphorus, between 
the Black Sea and the Sea of Azoph, but at a later period, perhaps 
about B. c. 680. In the time of Herodotus, about b. c. 450, the 
Teutonic tribes were on the Danube, and extended towards the south. 
Fiftv years before the Christian era, in Caesar's time, they were called 
Teutoni or Germans, and had established themselves so far to the 
westward as to have obliged 'the Celts to withdraw from the eastern 
banks of the Rhine. In later ages they became known by the name of 
Getse or Goths. 

24. The third and most recent stream of population which flowed 
into Europe, conveyed thither the Sclavonian or Sarmatian nations: 

■ * See numerous instances in Dr. Prichard's Celtic Nations, p. 66 — 69- 
t See the account of Herodotus on the Phoenician commerce. 
:J: Dr. Pricliard's Eastern Origin of the Celtic Nations. 



GERMANIC AND SCANDINAV^IAN LANGUAGKS. XI 

they are mentioned by Herodotus as being on the borders of Europe 
in his time ; they therefore probably entered Europe soon after 450. 
These coming last, occupied the most eastern parts, as Russia, Poland, 
Eastern Prussia, Moravia, Bohemia, and their vicinity. From these 
Sclavonic tribes a third genus of European languages arose, as the 
Russian, Polish, Bohemian, Livonian, Lusatian, Moravian, Dalmatian, &c. 
25. As the tribes of Celtic origin, the first source of European 
population, are clearly distinguished from the Teutonic or German, 
and as the Sclavonic or Sarmatian tribes, the third wave of population, 
have never extended so far vsrest as England, nor made any settlement 
among us, no further notice will be taken of them or of their languages. 
We are most concerned with the Teutonic, German, or Gothic, the 
second stream of European population, and the language spoken by 
these tribes. The language, brought into Europe by the great Gothic 
family, is chiefly known to us in its two important branches, the 
Germanic and Scandinavian. The Scandinavian branch includes the 
Icelandic, Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, &c. The Teutonic or Ger- 
manic branch is subdivided into Low-German and High-German. The 
Low-German comprises not only the older languages, such as the Anglo- 
Saxon, Friesic, and the Old-Saxon, but their immediate descendants, the 
modern English, with all its provincial dialects, the Dutch or Nether- 
landish, Flemish, and the present Low or Piatt German dialects, spoken 
in the north or low and flat parts of Germany. The High- German 
includes an account of the Mceso-Gothic, Alemannic, and Francic, with 
the present High-German, and its modern dialects. 



II.— GERMANIC AND SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES. 

1. The Germanic or Teutonic languages, the Anglo-Saxon, Friesic, 
Old-Saxon, Moeso-Gothic, Alemannic, and Francic, are easily distin- 
guished from the Scandinavian tongues, the Icelandic, Danish, Norwegian, 
and Swedish. The Germanic languages have no passive voice, and have 
only one definite article, which is always placed before the noun or 
adjective; but the Scandinavians have now, and have had from the 
earliest times, a passive form of the verb, and two definite articles — one 
placed before nouns, and the other aflRxed to them. 



Xll CHARACTER OF THE GERMANIC TRIBES. 

The Germans i Teutoni* Teutschen, Deutschen, speaking the German, . 
Teutonic or Theotisc language. 

2. Each of the Teutonic tribes skirting the northern or north-eastern 
boundary of the Roman empire, had its own distinctive denomination. 
Their peculiar names were unknown or disregarded by the Romans; 
hence these hostile bands of the Teutoni, from their martial appearance, 
were classed together, and by the Gauls and Romans called Germani, or 
war-men. -f We do not find in any remnant of their language, that the 
Germans ever applied this term to themselves.J When united as one 
people, under Charlemagne, the Germans styled themselves Teutschen or 
Deutschen, from the Teutoni§ mentioned by Caesar and Livy.|| These 
Teutoni were so powerful and influential, that (b. c. 102) they, united with 
the Cimbri, entered Italy, which was only preserved by the bravery and 
talent of Marius. While at the present day the Germans most frequently 
apply to themselves the name of Deutschen, they are generally called 
Germans by foreigners. 

3. Wherever the Germanic or Gothic tribes appeared, liberty pre- 
vailed : they thought, they acted for themselves. They would not blindly 
follow any leader or any system: they were free. Hence Theodoric 
encouraged Gothic literature, and induced Cassiodorus to write a history 
of the Goths from their only records, their ancient songs. Another 
Teutonic or Theotisc monarch, Charlemagne, gave encouragement to 
genius. He saw and felt, that the only efl^ectual mode of giving a full 
establishment to his authority over those whom he had conquered, was 
by enlightening their understandings, and influencing them by the solemn 
sanctions of religion. These he wisely attempted to convey in the 
vernacular idiom, convinced that his subjects loved even the language of 

* See note (§) below. 

f German, pi. Germanen — an appellation used by the Gauls and Romans to designate the 
inhabitants of Germany. The word German is Gallic, for the Gauls called the soldiers who 
received a stipend, Gaisaten [Plut. Marius, 6, 7]. If the French gais be the Moes. gais, 
Franc, ger a spear, then German would be a spear-man, spear-bearer. — Schmitthenner's Deutsches 
Worterbuch sub voce, p. 102. Others say that German is the same as Wermann, from 
which the Romans derived their Germanus, and the Gauls their Guerra. Warr, were, is 
derived from the Old -Ger. uuer pi. uueros, wer, war, waer, bar, bare a man, brave man, 
warrior ; vir bellator. — Radlqf's Die Sprachen der Germanen, p. 4, 28. 

X Celebrant carminibus antiquis Tuistonem deum terra editum, etfilium Mannum, originem 
gentis conditoresque. Deo ortos, Marsos, Gambrivios, Suevos, Vandalios, aflBrmant ; eaque 
vera et antiqua nomina. Ceterum Germa7ii(B vocabulum recens et nuper additum : quoniam qui 
primi Rhenum transgressi Gallos expulerint, ac nunc Tungri, nunc Germani vocati sunt. — 
Tacit, de Mor. Ger. 2. — Caesar, after enumerating the names of several nations, adds, '* qui uno 
nomine Germani appellantur. Caesar. Bell. Gal. ii. 4. — TvncnoL yap 6l Ttpiiavoi kutu ttjv 
VuifxaLav diaXtKTov'. for Gnesioi are the Germans in the Roman language. — Strabo 7. 

§ The Teutoni of Caesar, Livy, and Virgil ; Tuisto of Tacitus, or Tuisco, which, as Schmit- 
thenner and Mone observe, is a mutilation of Tiusco or Tiusto, signifying the great, thepowerfuL 
Deutsch, Old Ger. Diotisc, Diutisc, or Theotisc, signify belonging to a people, from diot 
people. The national name Theodisci, Theotisci, or Theudisci, was not used till the time of 
the Carlovingian dynasty. Then all the smaller nations were united into one great empire. 
This word, since that time, has assumed very different forms according to the provinces 
where it was used, as Dutsch, Dietsch, Teutsch, 'Deutsch. — Schmitthenners kurzes Deutsches 
Worterbuch, p. 301. Hone's geschichte des Heidenthumsa, vol. ii. p. b' — 8. 

i| Caesar I, 33, 40: 7, 77.— Livi. Epit. 68. 



LOW AND HIGH GERMAN. XIU 

freedom. He used his influence to preserve the songs of his native land, 
and to improve its language and fix its grammar. Thus stability was 
first given to the German tongue, from which period it has gradually 
advanced, till it has become one of the most cultivated and important 
languages in Europe. To trace its progress, it will be necessary to enter 
into detail, and to examine the German language in its two great divisions, 
the Low and High German. 

Division into Loiv and High German. 

4. The Germanic or Teutonic tribes may, according to the nature of 
their language, be separated into two divisions. The Low-German pre- 
vailed in the low or flat provinces of ancient Germany, lying to the north 
and west, and is used in modern Flanders, the Dutch provinces, West- 
phalia, Oldenburg, Hanover, Brunswick, Holstein, Sleswick, Mecklen- 
burg, Prussia, Courland, and part of Livonia, where the Low-German, or 
Nieder or Platt-Deutsch is spoken. This dialect is more soft and flowing 
than the High-German. It changes the High-German sch into s; the 
harsh sz or z into t, and always delights in simple vowels. 

5. The second division comprised the Upper or High German, which 
prevailed in the mountainous or southern parts of Germany, that is, in the 
north of Switzerland, in Alsace, Swabia, Baden, Wurtemberg, Bavaria, 
the Austrian States, Silesia, Upper Saxony, and Hesse. The High- 
German dialect is distinguished by its predilection for long vowels and 
diphthongs, and rough, hard, and aspirated consonants, especially by the 
harsh pronunciation of sch, st, sz, and z. 

6. The Francic seems to occupy an intermediate state between the 
High and Low German ; but as it appears most inclined to the High- 
German, it is placed in the second division. The earlier Francs inhabited 
the banks of the Rhine, from Mayence to Cleves, the present Rhine 
Provinces of Prussia, Wurzburg, Bamburg, and Franconia, now part of 
Bavaria, and they continually increased their territory till the immense 
empire of Charlemagne was founded. 

LoiD-German, 

7. The Low-German comprises — 

1st. Anglo-Saxon, written by king Alfred, ^Ifric, Caedmon, &c. sec. iii. 
9, note. 

2nd. Friesic, the written remains of which are found in the Asega-buch, 
&c. 

3rd. The Old-Saxon or Platt-Deutsch, which has employed the pens of 
many authors. Tatian's Harmony of the Gospels is translated into a sort 
of Old-Saxon. — The Heliand is in Old-Saxon. — Reineke Vos, &c. 

High' German. 

8. To the High-German belong — 

1st. The Moeso-Gothic, written by Ulphilas. 



XIV THE ANGLO-SAXONS — ORIGIN OF. 

2nd. The Alemannic or Suabian, written by Kero, Rhabanus Maurus, 
Otfrid, Notker, Chunrad von Kirchberg, Gotfrit von Nifen. 

3rd. The Francic, or transition between High and Low, but approach- 
ing more to the High-German, the chief writers in which are Isidore, 
and Willeram. 

9 The nature and peculiarity of these six dialects may be best shown 
by a short historical detail of each tribe, as an alteration in a language 
was generally produced by some influential political change. It seems 
impossible to say which of the Germanic tongues was first used in 
Europe, but probably that language which was spoken by the people 
located most to the west. If this be sufficient for priority, the Anglo- 
Saxons will claim the first notice. 



III.— THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 

1. The Anglo-Saxons derived their being and name from the Angles, 
a tribe of the Saxon confederacy, occupying Anglen in the south-east part 
of the Duchy of Slesw^ich in the south of Denmark. These Saxons, like 
all the Teutoni or Germans, were of oriental origin. They were as far 
vi^estward as the Elbe in the days of Ptolemy, a.d. 90; and therefore in 
all probability they were amongst the first Germanic or Teutonic tribes 
that visited Europe. Their situation, between the Elbe and the Eyder 
in the south of Denmark, seems to indicate that they moved among the 
foremost columns of the vast Teutonic emigration. The Saxons, when 
first settled on the Elbe, were an inconsiderable people, but in succeeding 
ages they increased in power and renown. About a.d. 240, the Saxons 
united with the Francs {the free people^ to oppose the progress of the 
Romans towards the north. By this league and other means the Saxon 
influence was increased, till they possessed the vast extent of country 
embraced by the Elbe, the Sala, and the Rhine, in addition to their 
ancient territory from the Elbe to the Eyder. In this tract of country 
were several confederate nations, leagued together for mutual defence. 
Although the Saxon name became, on the continent, the appellation of 
this confederacy of nations, yet at first it only denoted a single state. 

2. It may be satisfactory to have a brief and clear account of the 
Germanic tribes, the Jutes, Saxons, and Angles, who successively obtained 
settlements in Britain. 



THE JUTES, SAXONS, AND ANGLKS. XV 

3. The Jutes gained the first possessions. Hengist and Horsa, two 
brothers from Jutland or the Cimbric Chersonesus in Denmark, arrived in 
three ceols or small ships at Ebbs-fleet on the Isle of Thanet in a. d. 449. 
These Jutes, for assisting the Britons against the Picts and Scots, had the 
Isle of Thanet assigned to them. They subsequently obtained possession 
of Kent, the Isle of Wight, and part of Hampshire. 

4. The Saxons had a very extended territory. After many of them 
had migrated to Britain, the parent stock on the continent had the name 
of Old-Saxons* The first Saxon kingdom f was established by Ella 
in A.D. 491, under the name of South-Saxons, or South-Sax, now Sussex. 
In 494, another powerful colony arrived under Cerdic, and being placed 
west of the other kingdoms, they were, on their full establishment in 519, 
called West-Saxons [West-Seaxe], in its fullest extent embracing the 
north part of Hampshire, Berks, Wilts, Dorset, Somerset, Devon, and 
part of Cornwall. — A third Saxon kingdom, in a.d. 527, was planted in 
Essex, Middlesex, and the south part of Hertfordshire, under the name 
of East-Saxons, East-Sax,, or Essex. 



* Hist, of Anglo-Saxons, tjy F. Palgrave, Esq. small 8vo. 1831, p. 33; The Rise and Pro- 
gress of the English Commonwealth, by the same, 4to. 1832, p. 40. 

f The Saxon Chronicle gives the following account: "An. ccccxLix. Her Martianus and 
Valentinianus onfengon rice, and ricsodon vii. winter. On heora dagum Hengest and Horsa, 
from Wyrtgeorne gela^ode Brytta cyninge to fultume, gesohton Brytene on |jam staeSe, j^e is 
genemned Ypwines-fleot, aerest Bryttum to fultume, ac hy eft on hy fuhton. Se cing het hi 
feohtan agien Pihtas, ^nd hi swa dydan, and sige haefdon swa hwar swa hi comon. Hi J7a 
sende to Angle, and heton heom sendan mare fultum, and heom seggan Brytwalana nahtnesse, 
and Jjaes landes cysta. Hi f^a sendon heom mare fultum, )pa. comon ^a menn of |jrim maegSum 
Germanie, of Eald-Seaxum, of Anglum, of I'otum. 

"Of lotum comon Cantware and VVihtware [)jaet is seo maeiS ])e nu earda^ on Wiht,] and 
Jjaet cynn on West-Sexum, ]pe man nu gyt het lutna-cynn. Of Eald-Seaxum comon East- 
Seaxan, and SuS-Seaxan,'and West-Seaxan. Of Angle comon, se a si^^an stod westig betwix 
lutum and Seaxum, East-Engle, and Middel-Angle, and Mearce and ealle Nor^ymbra. 
Heora here-togan wasron twegen gebro<Sra, Hengest and Horsa, Jjaet waeron Wihtgilses suna, 
Wihtgils waes Witting, Witta Wecting, Wecta Wodning, fram J^am Wodne awoc eall ure cyne- 
cynn and SutSan-hymbra eac." — Ingram's Chr. pp. 13 — 15. 

Bede makes nearly the same statement. " Advenerant autem de tribus Germaniae populis 
fortioribus, id est, Saxonibus, Anglis, Jutis. De Jutarum origine sunt Cantuarii et Victuarii, 
hoc est, ea gens quae Vectam tenet insulam, et ea quae usque hodie in provincia Occidentalium 
Saxonum Jutarum natio nominatur, posita contra ipsam insulam Vectam. De saxonibus, id 
est, ea regione quae nunc antiquorum Saxonum cognominatur, venere Orientales Saxones, 
Meridiani Saxones, Occidui Saxones. Porro de Anglis, hoc est, de ilia patria quae Angulus 
dicitur et ah eo tempore usque hodie manere desertus inter provincias Jutarum et Saxohum 
perhibetur, Orientales Angli, Mediterranei Angli, Merci, tota Nordanhymbrorum progenies, 
id est, illarum gentium quae ad Boream Humbri fluminis inhabitant caeterique Anglorum 
populi sunt orti. Duces fuisse perhibentur eorum primi duo fratres Hengist et Horsa ; e 
quibus Horsa postea occisus in hello a Brittonibus, hactenus ia Orientalibus Cantiae partibus 
monumentum habet suo nomine insigne. Erant autem filii Victgilsi, cujus pater Vitta, cujus 
pater Vecta, cujus pater Voden, de cujus stirpe multarum provinciarum regiura genus originem 
duxit." — Bede,\\h.\. ch. 15, p. 52. Alfred's Saxon translation of ivhich is: "Comon hi of 
]jrim folcum )5am strangestan Germanie, j^aet of Seaxum, and of Angle, and of Geatum. Of 
geata fruman syndon Cantware, and Wihtsaetan, J^aet is seo Jjeod )>e Wiht jjaet Ealond onear- 
daS. Of Seaxum ]jaet is of J^am lande \)e mon hate<S Eald-Seaxan, coman East-Seaxan, and 
Su^-Seaxan, and West-Seaxan. And of Engle coman East-Engle and Middel-Engle, and Myrce, 
and eall NorShembra cynn, is J?aet land j^e Angulus is nemned betwyh Geatum and Seaxum. 
Is saed of l^aere tide )>e hi jjanon gewiton ocS to daege \>^t hit weste wunige. Wseron jja aerest 
heora latteowas and heretogan twegen gebro^ra, Hengest and Horsa. Hi waeron Wihtgylses 
suna, Jjaes Faeder waes [Witta haten, j^aes faeder waes Wihta haten, ]3aes] faeder waes Woden 
nemned, of j^aes strynde monigra maeg^a cvning cynn fruman laedde." — Smith's Bede, 
p. 483. 



XVI ANGLO-SAXONS. 

5. The Angles (Engle), from Sleswich in the south of Denmark, about 
A.D. 527, settled themselves in East Anglia, containing Norfolk, Suffolk, 
Cambridge, and part of Bedfordshire. — Ida, in a. d. 547, began to establish 
himself in Bernicia, comprehending Northumberland, and the south of 
Scotland between the Tweed and the Firth of Forth. — About a. d. 559, 
Ella conquered Deira [DeoramaegS] lying between the Humber and the 
Tweed, including the present counties of York, Durham, Northumberland, 
Cumberland, Westmoreland, and Lancashire. — Mercia was formed into an 
independent state by Crida, about a.d. 586, and compreliended the counties 
of Chester, Derby, Nottingham, Lincoln, Leicester, Northampton, Rut- 
land, Huntingdon, the north of Beds, and Hertford, Warwick, Bucks, 
Oxon, Worcester, Hereford, Gloucester, Stafford, and Salop. Thus, one 
Jute, three Saxon, and four Angle, altogether eight kingdoms, were 
established in Britain, by the year 586.* 

6. The Angles emigrated so numerously as to leave Angle, their 
original district, destitute of inhabitants. Though the Friesians are not 
named as uniting in the first conquest of Britain, it is clear, from their 
locality, that many of them accompanied the other Teutonic tribes, f 
Those' now settled in Britain were denominated Anglo-Saxons to show 
their origin; Anglo-Saxon denoting that the people so called were 
the Angles, a nation coming from the Saxon confederacy. In sub- 
sequent times, when the Angles had been alienated from the Saxon 
confederacy by settling in Britain, they denominated that part of this 
kingdom which they inhabited Engla-land, the land of the Angles, 
Angle's land, which was afterwards contracted into England. 

7. From the entrance of the Saxons into Britain in a.d. 449, they 
opposed the Britons, till, on the full establishment of the Saxon power in 
A.D. 586, the Britons were driven into Wales. iVs soon as the Britons 
ceased to oppose their invaders the Saxon kingdoms began to contend 
with each other. The West-Saxons, with varying success, gradually 
increased in influence and territory from Cerdic their first leader in 
A.D. 494, till 827, when Egbert, king of Wessex, defeated or made 
tributary all the other Saxon kingdoms. Egbert, his son Ethelwulph, 
and his grandsons Ethelbald, Ethelbert, Ethelred, and Alfred the Great, 
had to contend with new and fierce opponents in the Northmen, or Danes. 
The most energetic and renowned of the West- Saxon kings was Alfred 
the Great. He drove the Northmen from his kingdom, and found leisure 



* Mr. Turner, in his Hist, of A.-S., b. iii. ch. 5, vol. i. p. 309, observes : " This state of Britain 
has been improperly denominated the Saxon heptarchy. When all the kingdoms were settled, 
they formed an octarchy. Ella, supporting his invasion in Sussex, like Hengist in Kent, 
made a Saxon duarchy before the year 500. When Cerdic erected the state of Wessex in 519, 
a triarchy appeared ; East Anglia made it a tetrarchy; Essex a pentarchy. The success of 
Ida, after 547, having established a sovereignty of Angles in Bernicia, the island beheld an 
hexarchy. When the northern Ella penetrated, in 560, southward of the Tees, his kingdom 
of Deira produced an heptarchy. In 586, the Angles branching from Deira into the regions 
south of the Humber, the state of Mercia completed an Anglo-Saxon octarchy." 

f See Friesians, iv. § 50 — 56. 



ANGLO-SAXON EARLIEST WRITERS. XVH 

not only to encourage literature in others, but, with great success, to 
devote himself to literary pursuits, as much as the proper discharge of the 
public affairs of his kingdom would allow. He translated into Anglo- 
Saxon, Boethius, Orosius, and Bede, and thus gave a preeminence to the 
West-Saxon language, as well as to the West-Saxon kingdom. The 
West-Saxons retained the government of this island till 1016, when 
Canute, a Dane, became king of England. Canute and his two sons, 
Harold and Hardicanute, reigned twenty-six years. The Saxon line 
was restored in 1042, and continued till 1066, when Harold the Second 
was slain by William duke of Normandy, commonly called William the 
Conqueror. Thus the Anglo-Saxon dynasty terminated, after it had 
existed in England about six hundred years. The Saxon power ceased 
when William the Conqueror ascended the throne, but not the language ; 
for Anglo-Saxon, after rejecting or changing many of its inflections, 
continued to be spoken by the old inhabitants till the time of Henry the 
Third, a.d. 1258. What was written after this period has generally so 
great a resemblance to our present language, that it may evidently be 
called English. 

8. From the preceding short detail, it appears that the Jutes had small 
possessions in Kent and the Isle of Wight : the Angles occupied the east 
and north of England, with the south of Scotland : and the Saxons had 
extensive possessions in the western and southern parts. The descendants 
of these Saxons were very numerous : their power and influence became 
most extensive under the dominion of West-Saxon kings, especially under 
Egbert and Alfred. It was the powerful mind of Alfred that drew into 
England the talent and literature of Europe, and induced him to benefit 
his country by writing so much in his native tongue, the Anglo-Saxon ; 
thus giving the West-Saxon dialect so great a predominance as to con- 
stitute it the cultivated language of the Anglo-Saxons. This pure Anglo- 
Saxon may be found in the works of Alfred, JElfric, the Anglo-Saxon 
Laws, Caedmon, &c. 

9. Ethelbert, king of Kent, being converted to the Christian faith by 
the preaching of Augustine, in a.d. 597, was distinguished as the author of 
the first written Saxon laws which have descended to us, or are known to 
have been established. Some think that the laws of Ethelbert are the 
first Anglo-Saxon composition :* others give priority to Beowulf, the 
Traveller's Song, &c. Beowulf is said to have been nearly contemporary 
with Hengistjf but the poem contained in the Cotton MS. British Museum, 
Vitellius, A. XV. is not so old. There occur in it Christian allusions 
which fix this text at least at a period subsequent to a.d. 597. Some 
eminent scholars attribute this MS. to the early part of the 10th century.:}: 

* Turner's Hist, of Anglo-Saxons, b. iii. c. 6, vol. i. p. 332. 

t See the very neat edition of Beowulf, by Mr. Kemble, Pref p. xx. London, 1833. 
X Conybeare's Illustrations of Anglo-Saxon Poetry, p. 32; Turner's Hist, of Anglo-Saxons, 
b. ix. c. 2, vol. iii. p.281. 

d 



will ANGLO-SAXON — EARLIEST WRITERS. 

From this fine poem may be selected some early specimens of pure Anglo- 
Saxon. The Traveller's Song, in its original composition, is referred by 
Mr. Conybeare* to about a.d. 450. It was first printed by him with 
a literal Latin version, and a free poetical translation in English. An 
improved Saxon text is given in Mr. Kemble's Beowulf, p. 223 — 233. 
For an example of an early specimen of Anglo-Saxon poetry, compared 
with one of a subsequent date, see Friesic, § 58. As the works of 
Alfred, ^Elfric, Caedmon, the poems of Beowulf, and many of the 
books specified in the note below, f afford ample specimens of pure 

* Illustrations of A.-S. Poetry, p. 9—29 ; Exeter MS. p. 84. 

t A chronological list of the chief works printed in Anglo-Saxon, with a notice of Grammars and 
Dictionaries intended for junior students. — [1567.] jElfric. 1. A Testimonie of antiqvitie show- 
ing the auncient fayth in the Church of England touching the Sacrament of the Body and 
Bloude of the Lord here publickely preached, and also receiued in the Saxons' tyme, above 
600 yeares agoe, 16mo. Imprinted at London by John Daye, dwelling over Aldersgate beneath 
S. Martyns, 1567. This little book contains "A Sermon of the Paschall Larabe to be spoken 
unto the people at Easter." Anglo-Saxon on the left-hand page, and an English translation on the 
right. It is paged only on the right to 75. Then follow 13 leaves, without being paged, containing 
the Lord's Prayer, the Creed, and the X Commandments in Saxon, with an interlinear English 
translation. The whole book, therefore, consists of 8S leaves, or 176 pages. It was published again 
in small 4to. with L' Isle's "Treatise concerning the Old and New Testament," in 1623: the 
Easter Homily was printed again in the 2nd vol. of Fox's "Acts and Monuments," and in the 
notes to Whelock's "Bede," b. v. c. 22. In the year of L' Isle's death, it appeared again with this 
title, "Divers ancient Monuments in the Saxon Tongue," &c. 4to. 1638. — [1568.] Laws. 
2. ApxaLovofMia, sive de priscis Anglorum Legibus libi-i, Sermone Anglico, vetustate anti- 
quissimo aliquot abhinc seculis conscripti, atque nunc demum magno Jurisperitorum et 
amantium antiquitatis omnium commodo, e tenebris in lucem vocati, Gulielmo Lambardo, 
4to. ex officina Johan. Daye, Lond. 1568. A greatly improved edition was published by 
Whelock, in folio, Cambridge, 1644, pp. 226, 1/. A still better edition, so much enlarged and 
improved as to be considered almost a new work, was published with the following title : " Leges 
Anglo-Saxonicae Ecclesiasticse et Civiles, accedunt Leges Edvardi Latinae, Gulielmi Con- 
questoris Gallo-Normannicae, et Henrici I. Latinae, subjungitur Domini Henr. Spelmanni 
Codex Legum Veterum Statutorum Regni Anglise, quae ah ingressu Gulielmi I. usque ad 
annum nonum Henr. III. edita sunt; toti Operi praemittitur Dissertatio Epistolaris admo- 
dum Reverendi Domini Gulielmi Nicolsoni Episcopi, Derrensis De Jure Feudali Veterum 
Saxonum, cum Codd. MSS. contulit, notas, versionem, et glossarium adjecit David Wilkins, S.T.P. 
fol. Lond. 1721, p. 434, 21. 12s, 6d. These are in Anglo-Saxon, with Latin translation and notes. 
— Die Gesetze der Angelsachsen. In der Ursprache mit Uebersetzung und Erlauterungen 
herausgegeben von Dr. Reinhold Schmid, Professor der Rechte zu Jena, 8vo. Leipzig, 1832, 
pp. 304, about 8s. Ther*e are two columns in a page; on the left is the Anglo-Saxon text, in 
Roman type except the ]p, tS, and on the right a German translation. The second volume has long 
been expected. The Record Commission have undertaken an edition with an improved Anglo-Saxon 
text, carefully accented, and accompanied with an English translation and notes. It was prepared, 
and a considerable part printed, under the superintendence of the late Richard Price, Esq. whose 
critical acquaintance with the Anglo-Saxon has been manifested by his excellent edition of Warton's 
" History of English Poetry." This edition of the A.-S. Lawsby Mr. Price, is not yet published. 
— ^^[1571.] Gospels. 3. The Gospels of the fower Euangelistes, translated in the olde Saxon, 
tyme out of Latin into the vulgare toung of the Saxons, newly collected out of auncient 
monumentes of the sayd Saxons, and now published for testimonie of the same, 4to. London, 
printed by John Daye, 1571. It is accompanied with an English version out of the Bishop's 
Bible, so altered as to agree with the Saxon, and published by Fox, the Martyrologist, at the 
expense of Archbishop Parker. Price 31. 3s. — Quatuor D.N. Jesu Christi Evangeliorum Ver- 
siones perantiquse duae, Gothica scil. et Anglo-Saxonica: quarum illam ex celeberrimo Codice 
Argenteo nunc primum depromsit Franciscus Junius, banc autera ex Codd. MSS. collatis 
emendatius recudi curavit Thomas Mareschallus Anglus; cujus etiam observationes in 
utramque versionem subnectuntur. Accessit et Glossarium Gothicum : cui praemittitur 
Alphabetum Gothicum, Runicum, &c. opera ejusdem Francisci Junii, 4to. Dordrechti, 1665, 
et Amsterdam, 1684, pp. 383 — 431, 21. 8s. The Amsterdam edition appears, on collation, to be 
made up from the old copies with new title-pages, and a reprint of the first sheet in vol. ii. Moes. 
Glos. The Anglo-Saxon Gospels from the text of Marshall, the Rushworth Gloss, MS. Bodl. 
together with all the A.-S, translations of the Gospels, are about to appear in a quarto volume 
from the Pitt Press, Cambridge. — [1623.] ^lfric. 4. A Saxon Treatise concerning the Old 
and New Testament. Written abovt the time of King Edgar (700 yeares agoe) by ^Ifricvs 
Abbas, thought to be the same that was afterward Archbishop of Canterbvrie. Whereby 



ANGLO-SAXON — CHIEF WRITERS. XIX 

Anglo-Saxon, it will not be necessary to occupy much space with quo- 
tations. One extract will be sufficient, and, for facility of comparison, 

appeares what was the Canon of holy Scripture here then receiued, and that the Church of 
England had it so long agoe in her mother-tongue. Now first pvblished in print with 
English of our times by William L'Isle of Wilbvrgham, Esquier for the King's bodie : 
the original! remaining still to be seene in Sr Robert Cotton's Librarie, at the end of his 
lesser Copie of the Saxon Pentatevch. And herevnto is added ovtof the Homilies and Epistles 
of the fore-said ^Ifricvs, a second edition of A Testimonie of Antiquitie, 8{C. touching the 
Sacrament of the Body and Bloud of the Lord, here publikely preached and receiued in the 
Saxons' time, &c. London, printed by John Haviland for Henrie Seile, dwelling in Paul's 
Church-yard, at the signe of the Tyger's head, 1623, small l-to. The Dedication, Preface, 8fc. 
contain 30 leaves, the paragraphs numbered, but not the pages ; then follow 43 leaves of the Treatise 
of the Old and New Testament, Saxon on the left, and English on the right-hand page. The first 
12 leaves are without numbers, 13 is placed at the head of the Saxon on the left, and also at the 
head of the English on the right page, the same numeral serving for two pages. The Testimony of 
Antiquity, &c. has 9 leaves of Preface, 8(C., 14 leaves, with double numerals, of^^ A Sermon of the 
Paschall Lambe, &c.;" then follow 11 leaves unpaged, containing the words of Elfrike Abbot, and 
the Lord's Prayer, Creed, and X Commandments, in Saxon, with an interlinear English version, 
30 + 43 + 9 + 14 + 11 = 107 leaves, or 214 pages.— \\Q^0.'] Psalms. 5. Psalterium Davidis 
Latino-Saxonicum Vetus, a Johanne Spelmanno, D. Hen. fil. editum, 4to. Londini, 1640, \l. \s. 
— Libri Psalmorum versio antiqua Latina; cum paraphrasi Anglo- Saxonica,partim soluta 
oratione,partim metrice composita, nunc primum e cod. MS. in Bibl. Regia Parisiensi adservato, 
descripsit et edidit Benjamin Thorpe, S.A.S. Soc. Lit. Isl. Hafn. Soc. Hon. 8vo. Oxonii, 
1835. — [1644.] Bede. 6. Bedae Venerabilis Historia Ecclesiastica Anglorum, Anglo-Saxonicd 
ex versione iElfredi Magni Gentis et Latine, accessere Chronologia Saxonica {The Saxon 
Chronicle, see 9.) et Leges Anglo-Saxonice cum interpretatione Latina, cura Abrahami 
Wheloci, fol. Cantabrigiae, 1644. A much improved and splendid edition was published with the 
following title : " Bedae Historia Ecclesiastica, Latine et Saxonice ; una cum reliquis ejus 
operibus Historicis Latine, cura et studio Johannis Smith, S.T.P. fol. Cantabrigiae, 1722, 
pp. 823, 21. 16s. — [1655.] C/Edmon. 7. Caedmonis Monachi Paraphrasis Poetica Genesios ac 
prascipuarum sacrae paginae historiarum, abhinc annos m.lxx. Anglo-Saxonice conscripta, et 
nunc primum edita a Francisco Junio, Amst. 1655, pp. 116. 11. — Caedmon's Metrical Para- 
phrase of Parts of the Holy Scriptures, in Anglo-Saxon, with an English translation, notes, 
and a verbal index, by Benjamin Thorpe, F.S.A. 8vo. London, 1832, pp. 341, 11. Is. — 
[1659.] -^lfric. 8. yElfrici abbatis Grammatici vulgo dicti Grammatica Latino-Saxonica, &c. 
Guliel. Somnerus, fol. Oxon. 1659, pp. 52. This is a Latin Grammar written in Anglo-Saxon 
for the use of those Saxon youths who were studying Latin. . It is appended to Somner's A.-S. 
Dictionary, see 22. — [1692.] Chronicle. 9. Chronologica Anglo-Saxonica, cura Abrahami 
Wheloci, fol. Cantabrigiae, 1644. Appended to Whelock's edition of Bede, see Bede, 6. — Chronicon 
Saxonicum ; seu Annales Rerum in Anglia praecipue gestarum ad annum mcliv. ; cumindice 
rerum chronologico. Accedunt regulae ad investigandas nominum locorum origines ; et 
nominum locorum et virorum in Chronico memoratorum explicatio ; Latine et Anglo-Saxonic6, 
cum notis Edmundi Gibson, 4to. Oxon. 1692^ 21. 8s.— The Saxon Chronicle, with an English 
translation, and notes, critical and explanatory, and chronological, topographical, and glos- 
sarial indexes ; ashortGramraarof the Anglo-Saxon Language, by the Re v. James Ingram B.D.; 
a new Map of England during the Heptarchy, plates of Coins, 4to. 1823, pp. 463, 3/. 13s. 6d. 
The Saxon Chronicle has been translated into English, and printed with an improved A.-S. text, 
carefully accented from MSS. by the late Richard Price, Esq. for the Record Commission. It is 
not yet published. Miss Gurney printed and circulated privately among her friends a very useful 
work entitled "A literal Translation of the Saxon Chronicle, 12mo. Norwich, 1819, pp. 324, 
with 48 pages of /wrfex.— [1698.] Cleric's Bible. 10. Heptateuchus, Liber Job, et Evangelium 
Nicodemi, Anglo-Saxonice. Historiae Judith Fragmentum; Dano-Saxonice, edidit nunc 
primum ex MSS. Codicibus Edvardus Thwaites, 8vo. Oxon. 1698, pp. 168 + 30 == 198, 11. 4^. 
The first seven books of the Bible in Ayiglo- Saxon.— \1Q9%.'] Alfred's Boethius. 11. Boethii (An. 
Manl. Sever.) Consolationis Philosophise libri V. Anglo-Saxonice redditi ab iElfredo; ad 
Apographum Junianum expressos edidit Christophorus Rawlinson, 8vo. Oxon. 1698, 1/. 8s.— 
King Alfred's Anglo-Saxon version of Boethius, de Consolatione Philosophiae ; with an 
English translation and notes, by J. S. Cardale, 8vo. London, 1829, pp. 425, 1/. 5s.— King 
Alfred's Anglo-Saxon version of the Metres of Boethius, with an English translation and 
notes, by the Rev. Samuel Fox, M.A. 8vo. London, 1835, pp. 144, 12s.— [1709.] Elstob's 
Horn. 12. An English-Saxon Homily on the Birth-day of St. Gregory, anciently used in the 
English-Saxon Church, giving an account of the Conversion of the English from Paganism 
to Christianity • translated into modern English, with Notes, &c. by Elizabeth Elstob, 8vo. 
London, 1709, pp. Preface, Ix. 44 + 10 + 49 = 103, 1/. 4s. This work is in Anglo-Saxon 
and English. She also printed some sheets in folio of Anglo-Saxon Homilies, with an Encrlish 
translation. For reasons now unknown the press was stopped. A copy of what was printed is in the 
British Museum.— []77 3.] Alfred's Oros. 13. The Anglo-Saxon version from the historian 
Orosius, by Alfred the Great, together with an English translation from the Anglo-Saxon, 



XX ANGLO-SAXON — CHIEF WRITERS. 

the parable of the Sower is selected from Marshall's Gospels, Dordrecht, 
1665. 

(by Daines Barrington), 8vo. London, 1773 ; Anglo-Saxon, pp. 242, English translation 
and notes, pp. 259, about 1/. 5s. — Alfred's Will. 14. Alfred's Will, in Anglo-Saxon, 
with a literal and also a free English translation, a Latin version, and notes, (by the 
Rev. Owen Manning,) royal 4to. Oxford, at the Clarendon Press, 1788, pp. 51, about 7s. 
The same, reprinted from the Oxford edition of 1788, with a preface and additional notes, 
(by Mr. Cardale) London, Pickering, Combe, Leicester, 8vo. 1828, pp. 32, price 5s. — 
[1815.] Beowulf. 15. De Danorum Rebus Gestis Secul. IIL etIV. Poema Danicum, Dialecto 
Anglo-Saxonica, ex Bibliotheca Cottoniana Musaei Britannici edidit versione Latina et 
indicibus, auxit. Grim Johnson Thorkelin, Dr. J. V. &c. 4to. Havniae, 1815, pp. 299, 14*. — 
An analysis of this fine poem, and an English translation of a considerable part of it, has been given 
by Mr. Turner in his History of the Anglo-Saxons, b. ix. c. 2, vol. iii. p. 280-301. — A still more 
complete analysis is given, with free translations in English verse, and a literal Latin version from 
a text formed from a careful collation with the MS. in Conybeare's Illustrations of Anglo-Saxon 
Poetry, p. 30-167. — A very neat edition of the Anglo-Saxon text has appeared, entitled "The 
Anglo-Saxon Poems of Beowulf; the Traveller's Song, and the Battle of Finnes-burh, edited, 
together with a Glossary of the more difficult words, and an historical Preface, by John M. 
Kemhle, Esq, M.A. of Trinity College, Cambridge," small 8vo. London, 1833, pp. 259, 13*. 
A second edition, with an English translation and a complete Glossary, is on the eve of publication. 
— [1826.] Conybeare's Poefr?/. 16. Illustrations of Anglo-Saxon Poetry, by the Rev. John 
Josias Conybeare, M.A. late Anglo-Saxon Professor, &c. at Oxford, edited by his brother the 
Rev. W. D. Conybeare, M.A. &c. 8vo. London, 1826, pp. 286, I85.— [1830.] Fox's Menol. 
17. Menologium, seu Calendarium Poeticum, ex Hickesiano Thesauro: or. The Poetical 
Calendar of the Anglo-Saxons, with an English translation and notes, by the Rev. Samuel Fox, 
M.A. 8vo. London, 1830, pp. 64, 6s. — [1834.] Thorpe's Analect. 18. Analecta Anglo-Saxonica. 
A selection, in prose and verse, from Anglo-Saxon authors of various ages, with a Glossary; 
designed chiefly as a first book for students, by Benjamin Thorpe, F.S.A. 8vo. London, 1834, 
pp. 266, 20s. This work gives specimens of Anglo- Saxon from its purest to its most corrupt state. As 
some of the specimens have been taken from MSS. and are here printed for the first time, this useful 
book has properly a place here. — [1834,] Thorpe's Apoll. 19. The Anglo-Saxon version of the 
story of Apollonius of Tyre, upon which is founded the play of Pericles, attributed to Shak- 
speare; from a MS. in the Library of C.C.C. Cambridge, with a literal translation, &c. by 
Benjamin Thorpe, F.S.A. 12mo. London, 1834, pp. 92, 6s. — 20. A more minute account of works 
printed in Anglo-Saxon, especially of smaller detached pieces, may be found in p. 134 of Hickes's 
Institutiones Grammaticae Anglo-Saxonicae, 4to. Oxoniae, 1680; and in Wanley's Catalogue of 
Anglo-Saxon MSS. forming the 3rd vol. of Hickes's Tliesaurus, p. 325. A short notice of the 
principal A.-S. MSS. may be found in Hickes's Institutiones, from p. 135 to 176, but a minute 
account of all the A.-S. MSS. with many very interesting and valuable extracts, will be found in 
Wanley's Catalogue, which, as the Srd vol. of Hickes's Thesaurus, has the following title : "An- 
tiquae Literaturae Septentrionalis Liber alter, seu Humphredi Wanleii Librorum Veterum 
Septentrionalium qui in Angliae Bibliothecis extant, nee non multorum Veterum Codicum 
Septentrionalium alibi extantium Catalogus Historico-Criticus, cum totius Thesauri Lin- 
guarum Septentrionalium sex Indicibus, fol. Oxoniae, 1705. — An arranged Catalogue of all the 
extant relics of A.-S. poetry is given in Conybeare's Illustrations of A.-S. Poetry, p. Ixxvi — 
Ixxxvi. 

21. Grammars. 1. Hickes's Institutiones Gram. A.-S. 4to. Oxon. 1689, 2Z. — 2. Hickes's 
Thesaurus, 3 vols. fol. Oxon. 1705, i2s. — 3. (Thwaites's) Gram. A.-S. ex Hickesiano, 8vo. 
pp. 48, 2/.— 4. Elstob's (Eliz.) Gram, of English- Saxon tongue, 4to. Lond. 1715, 1/.— 5. 
Henley's Gram, of Anglo-Saxon, Lond. 1726, pp. 61, 4s. — 6. Lye's Gram. Anglo-Saxon, 
prefixed to Junius's Etymologicum, fol. Oxon. 1743. — 7. Manning's Gram. Anglo-Saxon et 
Mceso-Goth. prefixed to his edition of Lye's A.-S. Diet. 2 vols. fol. Lond. 1772.— 8. Rask's 
Angelsaksish Sproglaere, 8vo. Stockholm, 1817, pp. 168; Mr. Thorpe's Translation of ditto, 
8vo. Copenhagen, 1830, 15s. 6d. — 9. Sisson's Elements of A.~S. Gram. 12mo. Leeds, 1819, 
pp. 84, 5s. — 10. Dr. Jacob Grimm's Deutsche Grammatik, 3 vols. 8vo. Gottingen, 1822, 
1826, 1831. This is a Grammar of all the Germanic languages; it is the 2nd edit. — 11. Bos- 
worth's Elements of A.-S. Gram. 8vo. 1823, pp. 330, 16s. — Bosworth's Compendious Gram, 
of Primitive Eng. or A.-S. 8vo. 1826, pp. 84, 5s. — 12. Ingram's Short Gram, of A.-S. prefixed 
to his edition of the Saxon Chronicle, 4to. 1823, pp. 8. — 13. Gwilt's Rudiments of A.-S. 8vo. 
Lond. 1829, pp. 56, 6s. 

22. Dictionaries. Somner's Diet. Saxonico-Latino-Anglicum, folio, Oxon. 1659, 8/. — 2. 
Benson's Vocabularium A.-S. 8vo. Oxon. 1701, 11. 4s. — 3. Lye's Dictionarium Saxonico et 
Gothico-Latinum, published by Manning, in 2 vols. fol. Lond. 1772, 71. 17s. 6d. 

Works relating to Anglo-Saxon. — [1650.] 23. Casauboni (Merici) de Lingua Saxonica et de 
Lingua Hebraica Commentarius ; accesserunt Gulielmi Somneri ad verba vetera Germanica 
Lipsiana notae, small 8vo. Londini, 1650, 8s. 6^.— [1678.] Alfred's Life. 24, ^Ifredi Magni 
Vita, a Joanne Spelman, plates, folio, Oxon. 1678, about 16s.— [1709.] ^Elfred's Life, by Sir 
John Spelman, Knt. from the original manuscript in the Bodleian Library, with considerable 
additions, and several liistorical remarks, by the publisher Thomas Hearne, M.A. small SvOr 



ANGLO-SAXON DIALECTS. XXI 

Mk. iv. 3—8. 

3. Gehyra<S, Ute eode se saedere hys saed to sawenne. 4. And Jja he sew, sum 
feoll wicS Jjone weg, and fugelas comon and hyt fraeton. 5. Sum feoll ofer stans- 
cyligean, )?ar hyt naefde mycel eor^an, and sona up-eode, forjjam |?e hyt naefde eortSan 
J?iccnesse. 6. pa hyt up-eode, seo sunne hyt forswaelde, and hyt forscranc, forjjam 
hyt wirtruman nsefde. 7. And sum feoll on j^ornas, j^a. stigon j^a jjornas and 
for^rysmodon ^aet, and hyt waestm ne baer. 8. And sum feoll on god land, and hyt 
sealde, upstigende and wexende, wasstm, and an brohte jrittig-fealdne, sum syxtig- 
fealdne, sum hundfealdne. 

The Anglo-Saxon Dialects, 

10. The Jutes, Angles, and Saxons, had probably some little differ- 
ence of dialect when they arrived in Britain. Distant tribes, from the 
disturbed state of the country, and the diflSculties of travelling, could 
have very limited intercourse. The Jutes were few in number, and could 
not have much influence, especially as it regards the language. The 
descendants of the Angles were very numerous, and occupied the country 
north of the Thames : they settled in East-Anglia, Northumbria, south of 
Scotland, &c. Their language was more broad and harsh than the 
West-Saxon, and was formerly called the Dano-Saxon dialect. It may, 



Oxford, 1709, about 95.— Life of Alfred or Alured, by Robert Powell, 18mo. 1 634, about 5*.— 
iElfredi Regis praefatio ad Pastorale Sancti Gregorii, e Codd. MS. Jan. LIIL Saxon and Latin. 
See Asserii Meneven. ^Ifredi, p. 81. — [1722.] Asserii Menevensis Annales Rerum Gestarum 
^Ifredi Magni, recensuit Franciscus Wise, M.A. small Svo. Oxon. 1722, about 9s. — Mr. 
Turner's Hist, of Anglo- Saxons, b. iv.c. 6 — 11, and b. v. c. 1 — 6. — [1708.] Wotton's Ffez^. 25. 
Linguarura Veterum Septentrionalium Thesauri Grammatico-Critici et Archaeologici, auctore 
Georgio Hickesio, Conspectus brevis, cumnotis, Gulielmo Wotton, 12mo. 12*. — [1708.] Wot- 
ton's Short View of George Hickes's Grammatico-Critical and Archeological Treasury of the 
Ancient Northern Languages, translated, with notes, by Maurice Shelton, 4to. London, 1737. 
— [1715.] Elstob's Saxon Devotion. 26. Publick Office ofdaily and nightly devotion for the seven 
canonical hours of prayer, used in the Anglo-Saxon Church, with a translation and notes, 
together with the Rev. Dr. George Hickes's Controversial Discourses, by W. Elstob, 1 vol. 
Svo. 1705, London, 5s. ; the same, 2 vols. 8vo. 16s. 1715-27.— [1726.] Gavelkind. 27. Somner's 
(William) Treatise of Gavelkind, both name and thing, showing the True Etymologie and 
Derivation of the One, the Nature, Antiquity, and Original of the Other. To which is added 
the Life of the Author, by Bishop White Kennett, 4to. London, 1726. 175.— [1798.] Henshall. 
28. The Saxon and English Languages reciprocally illustrative of each other ; the impracti- 
cability of acquiring an accurate knowledge of Saxon Literature through the medium of 
Latin Phraseology, exemplified in the errors of Hickes, Wilkins, Gibson, and other scholars ; 
and a new mode suggested of radically studying the Saxon and English Languages, by Samuel 
Henshall, M.A. 4to. London, 1798, pp. 60. 5s. — [1807.] Ingram. 29. An Inaugural Lecture on 
the utility of Anglo-Saxon Literature ; to which is added the Geography of Europe, by King 
Alfred, including his account of the Discovery of the North Cape in the 9th century, by the 
Rev. James Ingram, M.A. 4to. Oxford, 1807, pp. 112. 10^.6^.— [1807.] Henshall. 30. The 
Etymological Organic Reasoner; with part of the Gothic Gospel of St. Matthew, from the 
Codex Argenteus (Cent. IV.) and from the Saxon Durham Book (Cent. VIII.), with an 
English Version, Svo. 1807. 55.-[1822.] Silver. 31. A Lecture on the Study of the Anglo- 
Saxon, (by the Rev. Thomas Silver, D.D.), Svo. Oxford, 1822. 3s.— [1830.] 32. Mone's (Franz 
Joseph) Quellen und Forschungen zur Geschichte der Teutschen Lit. und Sprache, Svo. 
Leipzig, 1830, 10s. — [1833.] 33. Collen's (George William) Britannia Saxonica, a Map of 
Britain during the Octarchy, 4to. London, 1833, 12s. -[1799-1834.] 34. Turner's (Sharon) 
History of the Anglo-Saxons ; comprising the History of England from the earliest period to 
the Norman Conquest, 3 vols. Svo. 5th edit. London, 1834, 2Z. 5s. — Palgrave's (Sir Francis) 
Hist, of A.-S. 16mo. Lond. 1831, pp. 391, 5s. — Palgrave's Rise and Progress of the English 
Commonwealth, 4to. London, 1834, 3/. 3s. Mr. Turner and Sir F. Palgrave's important works 
must be carefully read by every A,-S. student. These for History, and Rask and Grimm for Philo- 
logy, are rich sources of information for those who are interested in the Anglo-Saxon language and 
literature. 



XXII 



ANGLO-SAXON — DURHAM BOOK, A. D. 900. 



however, probably be rather denominated, from its locality,* the Nor- 
thumbrian or East- Anglian dialect. As this is not the place to enter 
minutely into the subject of dialects, a few extracts are only given, that 
they may be compared with the specimen of pure Anglo-Saxon. 

II. The parable of the Sower, from the Northumbrian Gloss or 
Durham Book, written about A.D.900,t and now preserved in the British 
Museum, London, Cotton MSS. Nero, D. IV. fol. 100. 



Mk. iv. 3—8. 

3. heono eode Xe sawende 1 sedere to sawenne 4. and miS^s geseuw, 
3. Ecce exiit seminans ad seminandum. 4. et dum seminat, 

o<$er i su feoll ymb ^a stret, and cwomon flegendo and fretton I eton <Saet 
aliud cecidit circa via, et venerunt volucres et comederunt illud. 

5 sum ec feoll of stsener, Ser ne haefde eortSu michellmenig; and hraeSe 
5. aliud vero cecidit super petrosa, ubi non habuit terrain multam ; et statim 

upp iornende waes 1 arisaen waes f Son niefde heanisse eorSes : 6, and Sa 

exortum est, • quoniam non habebat altitudinem terrse : 6. et quando 

arisen 1 5a upp eode waes sunna, gedrugade } f bernde ; f Son niefde 



exortus est 



sol. 



exaestuavit ; eo quod non haberet 

wyrt-ruma, gedrugade. 7. and sum feoll in Sornum, and astigon I upp eodun Somas, 
radicem, exaruit. 7. et aliud cecidit in spinis, et ascender unt spinae, 



• Mr. Cardale has well remarked: — "Pure Anglo-Saxon and Dano- Saxon were the two 
great dialects of the language. The pure A.-S. was used, as Hickes observes, in the southern 
and western parts of England ; and the Dano-Saxon, in the north of England and south of 
Scotland. It is entirely a gratuitous supposition, to imagine that either of these dialects 
commenced at a much later period than the other. Each was probably as old as the time of 
Egbert. . . .The Saxons were predominant in the southern and western parts, and the Angles in 
the northern. As these nations were distinct in their original seats on the continent, so they 
arrived at different times, and brought with them different dialects. This variety of speech 
continued till the Norman conquest, and even afterwards. . . . These two great dialects of the 
A.-S. continued substantially distinct, as long as the language itself was in use .... that the 
Dano-Saxon, in short, never superseded the A.-S. . . . They were not consecutive, but contem- 
porary." — Notes prefixed to Mr. Cardale' s elegant edition of Boethius. 

Another gentleman, to whom A.-S. literature is also much indebted, thus states his 
opinion : '* Saxon MSS. ought to be locally classed, before any attempt be made at chrono- 
logical arrangement ; nor will this appear strange when we consider, that in early times the 
several divisions of the kingdom were, comparatively speaking, almost like foreign countries 
to each other; that in some parts the Saxon must have continued uninfluenced by foreign 
idioms much longer than in others; that the various provincial dialects must have been much 
more strongly marked than they are at present, and that they were all equally employed in. 
literary composition."— Mr. Thorpe's Preface to Ccedmon, pp. xii. xiii. 

Mr. Thorpe mentions Mr. Joseph Stephenson, of the British Museum, as the gentleman 
from whom we may hope for a local classification of our Saxon MSS. Perhaps it would be 
difficult to find a gentleman more competent for so arduous a work, if we form a judgment of 
Mr. Stephenson's qualifications only from the valuable matter collected from old MSS. and 
judiciously inserted by him in the first two parts of Boucher's English Glossary of Archaic and 
Provincial Words, 4to. 1832-1833. 

t This is one of the finest specimens of Saxon writing. The Vulgate Latin text of the 
Four Gospels was written by Eadfrid Bishop of Lindisfarne, about a. d. 680 ; the interlinear 
Anglo-Saxon gloss was added by Aldred, probably about 900. For a full account of this 
MS. see Mareschalli Observationes in Versionem Anglo-Saxonicam, Dordrechti, 4to. 1665, 
p. 492 : Wanley's Catalogue, p. 252 : Henshall's Etymological Organic Reasoner, p. 54: 
Ingram's Inaugural Lecture on Saxon Literature, p. 43 : and Baber's Historical account of 
the Saxon and English Versions of the Scriptures, before the opening of the fifteenth century, 
prefixed to his edition of Wiclif's Gospels, 4to. 1810, p. lix. For facsimiles of the beautiful 
writing in this splendid Durham Book, see Astle's Origin and Progress of Writing, 4to, 1803, 
p. 96; and my Elements of Anglo-Saxon Grammar, 8vo. 1823, p. 18. 



• ANGLO-SAXON CHRONICLE, 1135. XXlii 

and under dulfon \)set, and waestm ne salde. 8. and o^er feoU on eor^u 
et suffocaverunt illud, et fructum non dedit. 8. et aliud cecidit in terrain 

godu, and salde waestm stigende, and waexende, and to brohte enne \ an 

bonam, et dabat fructum ascendentem, et crescentem, et adferebat unum 

^rittig and un sexdig, and an hundraiS. 

triginta et unum sexagenta, et unum centum.* 

12. The parable of the Sower, from the Rushworth Gloss, which is 
an Anglo-Saxon gloss or version of the 10th century, written at Hare- 
wood or Harwood [aet Harawuda], over St. Jerome's Latin of the Four 
Gospels. The Latin text is about the age of the Latin of the Durham 
Book, as it was written towards the close of the 7th century. MS. 
Bibl. Bodl. D. 24. No. 3946, now (1835) D. 2. 19. Auct.f 

Mk. IV. 3—8. 
3. GeheriSe ; heonu code iSe sedere i sawend to sawend. 4. and mi^^y giseow, 
3, Audite ; ecce exiit seminans ad seminandu. 4. et dum seminat, 

oiSer 1 sum gifeol ymb iSa strete, and comun flegende, and fretan i etan ^set. 
aliud decidit circa viam, et venerunt volucres, et comederunt illud. 

5. oSer 1 sum soiSlice gifeol ofer stsenere, iSer ne haefde eor<5o, and hraetSe 
5. aliud vero cecidit super petrosa, ubi non habuit terram, et statim 

up iornende waes, for^on ne haefde heonisse eor^o. 6. and tSa 

exortum est, quoniam non habebat altitudine terrae. 6. et quando 

aras I uparnende waes sunne, and drygde fbernde; and for Jjon ne haefde 

exortus est sol, exaestuavit ; et ex eo quod non haberet 

wyrtruma, adrugade. 7. and o^er gifeol in jjornas, and astigun 1 upeadun tSornas 
radicem, exaruit. 7. Et aliud cecidit in spinas, et ascenderunt spinae 

and under dulfun ^aet, and waestem ne salde. 8. and oSro gifeol on eor^o 
et suffocaverunt illud, et fructum non dedit. 8. et aliud cecidit in terram 

■gode ; and salde waestem stigende, and wexende, and tobrohte an 1 enne 
bona; et dabat fructum ascendentem, et crescentem, et adferebat unum 

iSritig, and an sextig and an hundretS. 
XXX., et unum lx. et unum c.X 

13. An extract from the Saxon Chronicle of the year 1135, will show 
how much the language was then corrupted in its idiom, inflections, and 
orthography. 

An. Mcxxxv. On J^is gere for se king Henri ofer sae aet te Lammasse. and >aet oSer 
dei. |ja he lai an slep in scip. pa. J^estrede jje daei ouer all landes. and uuard ^e sunne 
swilc als it uuare j^re-niht-ald mone. an sterres abuten him at middaei. Wurmen men 
swi^e ofwundred and ofdred. and saeden J^aet micel Hng sculde cumme her efter. swa 

* For the accurate collation of this extract with the MS. we are indebted to the polite 
attention of Sir Henry Ellis, of the British Museum. 

f For a further account of this MS. see Mareschalli Observ. in Versionem A.-S. p. 492 : 
Wanley's Catalogue, p. 81, 82: Henshall's Etym. Organic Reasoner, p. 63, 64; Astle's 
Origin and Progress of Writing, p. 99 : Baber's Pref. to Wiclif 's Test. p. lx. 

X The transcript of this extract was obligingly compared with the MS. by a well-known 
Saxon scholar. Dr. Ingram, President of Trinity College, Oxford, and edito^'^of the Saxon 
Chronicle, with an English translation, notes, &c. see note to § 9, No. 9. 



Xxiv ANGLO-SAXON — ORMULUM, 1180. * 

dide. for |jaet ilc gser wartS J^e king ded. past o^er daei efter s. Andreas massedaei. on 
Normandi. pa wes tre sona l^as landes. for seuric man sone raeuede o^er J^e mihte. 
pa namen his sune and his frend and brohten his lie to Engle-land. and bebiriend in 
Reding. God man he wes. and micel aeie wes of him. Durste nan man misdon wiS 
o^er on his time. Pais he makede men and daer. Wua sua bare his byr^en gold and 
silure. durste nan man sei to him naht bute god Ingram's Saxon Chronicle, p. 364. 

LITERAL ENGLISH. 

An. 1135. In this year went the king Henry over sea at the Lammas; and the 
next day, as he lay asleep on ship, darkened the day over all lands, and was the sun 
so as it were a three-night-old moon, and the stars about him at mid-day. Men were 
very much astonished and terrified, and said that a great event should come hereafter. 
So it did ; for that same year was the king dead, the next day after St. Andrew's mass- 
day, in Normandy. Then was tribulation soon in the land; for every man that might, 
soon robbed another. Then his sons and his friends took his body, and brought it to 
England, and buried it at Reading. A good man he was ; and there was great dread 
of him. No man durst do wrong with another in his time. Peace he made for man 
and beast. Whoso bare his burthen of gold and silver, durst no man say ought to him 
but good. 

14. The Grave, a fragment. It is found in the margin of Semi-Saxon 
Homilies in the Bodleian Library,* and is supposed by Wanley to be 
written about the year 1150. 

SEMI-SAXON. LITERAL ENGLISH. 

De wes bold gebyld For thee was a house built 

er pu iboren were ; Ere thou wert born ; 

^e wes molde imynt For thee was a mould appointed 

er iSu of moder come; Ere thou of mother camest; 

ac hit nes no idiht. But it is not prepared, 

ne |7eo deopnes imeten ; Nor the deepness meted ; 

nes gyt iloced. Nor is yet seen, 

hu long hit J^e were : How long for thee it were : 

Nu me pe bringas^ Now I bring thee 

per ^u beon scealt, Where thou shalt be, 

nu me sceal pe meten. Now I shall thee measure, 

and ^a mold seotS^a, &c. And then earth afterwards. 

15. The Ormulum is a metrical paraphrase of the Gospels and Acts, in 
lines of fifteen syllables, written in Semi-Saxon by an ecclesiastic named 
Orm, probably in the north of England, about the year llSO.f The 
author gives the following reason for the name of the work : 

This book is named Ormulum, for that Orm made it. 

Diff boo iff nemmnedd Orrmulum, forrH I^aet Orrm itt wrohhte — Preface. 

Mr. Thorpe observes, that the author seems to have been a critic in his 
mother-tongue ; and from his idea of doubling the consonant after a short 

* Bibl. Bodl. Codex NE. F. 4. 12, Wanley, p. 15. — Mr. Conybeare's Illustrations of A.-S. 
Poetry, p. 270, for the first printed text with a verbal Latin and English translation. Mr. 
Thorpe's Analecta, p. 142, for an improved text. 

f Wanley's Catalogue, p. 59 — 63 : Conybeare's Illustrations of A.-S. Poetry, Introd. p. Ixvii : 
Turner's Hist, of Eng. Middle Ages, b. ix. 1, vol. v. p. 435, 436 : Mr. Thorpe's Analecta, Pref. 
p. ix: Baber's Wiclif, Pref. p. Ixiv. 



ANGLO-SAXON — WICLIF, A.D. 1380. XXV 

vowel, as in German, we are enabled to form some tolerably accurate 
notions as to the pronunciation of our forefathers. Thus he writes min and 
icin with a single n only, and lif with a single y, because the i is long, as 
in mine, loine, and life. On the other hand, wherever the consonant is 
doubled, the vowel preceding is short and sharp, as ivinriy pronounced win, 
wot wine. Orm's dialect merits, if any, to be called Dano-Saxon: his 
name also betrays a Scandinavian descent.* 

Uppo ]>e J?ridde dagg bilammp, swa summ j^e Goddspell kij^e]?]?, 

)5att i ])e land off Galile wafT an bridale garrkedd ; 

And itt waff garrkedd inn an tun j^att waff Cana gehatenn, 

and Cristeff moderr Marge waff att tatt bridaless saete. 

And Crist wass clepedd till Jjatt bus wi)?)? hise lerninng cnihhtess. 

And teggre win waff drunnkenn swa l^sett taer nass j^a na mare. 

Wanley, p. 62. f 

VERBAL ENGLISH. 

Upon the third day (it) happened, as some of the Gospels say, 

that in the land of Galilee was a bridal prepared ; 

And it was prepared in a town that was Cana called, 

and Christ's mother, Mary, was at that bridal's seat. 

And Christ was invited to that house with his disciples. 

And their wine was drunk, so that there was not then any more. 

16. Robert of Gloucester J was a monk belonging to the abbey at 
Gloucester, who wrote a history of England in rhyming verse about 
A.D. 1280. He declares that he saw the eclipse which happened in 1264, 
on the day of the battle at Evesham, and thus describes- it : 

As in l^e Norj? West a derk weder J^er aros, 

Sodeinliche suart inou, j^at mani man agros, 

And ouer caste it j^ojte al l^ut lond, \>aX me miste vnne^e ise, 

Grisloker weder l^an it was ne mi^te an er^e be. 

An vewe dropes of reine )?er velle grete inou. 

pis tokninge vel in Y\s lond, l^o me Hs men slou 

Wor |?retti mile Jeanne, pis isei Roberd, 

l?at verst Hs hoc made, and was wel sore aferd. 

17. John de Wiclif was born about 1324, at Wiclif, a village on the 
banks of the river Tees, near Richmond, Yorkshire. He translated the 
Bible and Testament, and even the Apocryphal books, from Latin into 
English, in the year 1380. Though Wiclif 's writing may be called Old 
English, yet a specimen from the parable of the Sower is given that it 
may be compared with the preceding translations. 

* Analecta, Pref. p. ix. 
t Bodleian Library, Cod. Junii, i. p. 330. 

:J: Turner's Hist, of Eng. Middle Jges, b. viii. 1, vol. v. p. 217: ix. 2, vol. v. p. 442^ — 
Warton's Hist, of Eiig. Poetry, Svo. 1824, vol. i. p. 52. 



XXvi ANGLO-SAXON — SEM[-SAXON OF KENT, 1340. 

Mk. IV. 3—8. . 

Here ye, lo a man sowinge goith out to sowe, and the while he sowith sum seed 
fel aboute the weye, and briddis of hevene camen and eeten it. other felde doun on 
stony places where it hadde not myche erthe, and anoon it sprong up ; for it hadde 
not depnesse of erthe, and whanne the sunne roos up it welewide for hete, and it 
driede up, for it hadde no roote. And other fel doun into thornes : and thornes 
sprungen up and strangliden it, and it gaf not fruyt : And othere felde doun into 
good lond : and it gaf fruyt spryngyng up and wexinge, and oon broughte thritty fold, 
and oon sixty fold, and oon an hundrid fold. 

18. Semi-Saxon_, in the dialect of Kent, written in a.d. 1340. 

Nou ich wille pet ye ywyte hou hit if ywent 

pet )?if bocif ywrite mid engliff of Kent. 

pif hoc if ymad uor lewede men | 

Vor uader | and uor moder | and uor ojjer ken ] 

Ham uor to berse uram alle manyere zen ] 

pet ine hare inwytte ne bleue no uoul wen. 

Huo afe god if hif name yzed | 

pet Jjif hoc made God him yeue J?et bread ] 

Of anglef of heuene and l^erto his red | 

And onderuonge hif zaule huanne J^et he if dyad. 

Amen. 

Ymende. pet j^if boc if uolueld ine }?e eue of jpe holy apoftlef Symon an Judaf | of 
ane broj^er of jpe choyftre of faynt Austin of Canterberi | Ine J^e yeare of oure Ihordes 
beringe. 1340 Arundel MSS. No. 57, British Museum* 

19. It is evident, from the preceding extracts, that the pure West- 
Saxon did not ever prevail over the whole of England, and that in 
process of time the language approached more or less to the present 
English, according to its relative position to the West-Saxons. In early 
times there was, clearly, considerable dialectic variety in the writings of 
men residing in different provinces. This will be evident by comparing 
the short specimens from the Northumbrian and Rush worth glosses, f and 
the extract from the Saxon Chronicle,^ with the quotation from Marshall's 
Anglo-Saxon Gospels, || and other works in pure Anglo-Saxon. The 
difference observable in the language of the most cultivated classes would 
be still more marked and apparent in the mass of population, or the less 
educated community. These, from their agricultural pursuits, had little 
communication with the inhabitants of other provinces; and having few 
opportunities and little inducement to leave their own neighbourhood, 
they intermarried among each other, and, from their limited acquaintance 
and circumscribed views, they would naturally be much attached to their 
old manners, customs, and language. The same cause operating from 
age to age would keep united the greater part of the population, or the 



* Mr. Thorpe's Pref. to Ccedmon, p. xii. 

t § 11 and 12. . : § 13. || § 9. 



ANGLO-SAXON — CHIEF ENGLISH PROVINCIAL GLOSSARIES. XXVll 

families of the middle stations of life, it may, therefore, be well expected that 
much of the peculiarity of dialect prevalent in Anglo-Saxon times, is pre- 
served even to the present day in the provincial dialects of the same districts. 
In these local dialects, then, remnants of the Anglo-Saxon tongue may be 
found in its least altered, most uncorrupt, and therefore its purest state. 
Having a strong and expressive language of their own, they had little 
desire and few opportunities to adopt foreign idioms or pronunciation, 
and thus to corrupt the purity of their ancient language. Our present 
polished phrase and fashionable pronunciation are often new, and, as 
deviating from primitive usage, faulty and corrupt. We are, therefore, 
much indebted to those zealous and patriotic individuals who have referred 
us to the archaisms of our nervous language, by publishing provincial 
glossaries, and giving specimens of their dialects.* 

20. So much has been advanced with the view of showing, that what is 
generally termed '^vulgar language," deserves some notice, and claims 
our respect from its direct descent from our high-spirited Anglo-Saxon 
ancestors, and from its power of expression. It is not asserted that any 
provincial dialect has issued in a full and uncontaminated stream from the 
pure Anglo-Saxon fountain ; but in every province some streamlets flow 
down from the fountain-head, retaining their original purity and flavour, 
though not now relished perhaps by fastidious palates. None can boast 
that they retain the language of their early forefathers unimpaired, but all 
may prove that tliey possess strong traces of it. f 



* The following is a list of the principal provincial Glossaries : — 1. A Collection of English 
Words not generally used, &c. by John Ray, F.R.S. 3rd edit. 8vo. London, 1737, pp. 150, 
price about 4s. — 2. An Exmoor Scolding, and also an Exmoor Courtship, with a Glossary, 7th 
edit. 8vo. Exon. 1771, pp. 60, price 9^^. — 3. The Lancashire Dialect, with a Glossary, Poems, 
&c. by Tim Bobbin, Esq. (Mr. John Collier, Schoolmaster at Milnrow, near Rochdale,) 
12mo. Manchester, 1775; London, 1818, pp. 212, price 3s. — 4. A Provincial Glossary, with 
a Collection of Local Proverbs, &c. hy Francis Grose, Esq. F.A.S. 2nd edit. 12mo. London, 
1790, price 5s. — 5. Anecdotes of the English Language, chiefly regarding the Local Dialect of 
London and its environs, which have not corrupted the language of their ancestors, London, 
1803, 8vo. 2nd edit. 1814. — 6. An Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language, &c. by 
John Jamieson, D.D. F.R.S.E. &c. 2vols.4to. \%Q^, Edinburgh ; 2 vols. 4to. Supplement, 1825. 
— 7. A List of ancient Words at present used in the mountainous Districts of the West Riding 
of Yorkshire, by Robert Willan, M.D. F.R.S. and S.A. 1811; Archaeologia, vol. xvii. 1814, 
pp. 29. — 8. An Attempt at a Glossary of some Words used in Cheshire, by Roger Wilbraham, 
Esq. F.R.S. and S.A. 1817 ; Archaeologia, vol. xix. 2nd edit. Rod, London, 12mo. 1826, price 5s. 
pp. 117; The Hallamshire Glossary, by the Rev. Joseph Hunter. — 9. Suffolk Words and 
Phrases, by Edward Moor, F.R.S. F.A.S. &c. 12mo. Woodbridge, 1823.— 10. Horae Momenta 
Cravense, or, the Craven Dialect : to which is annexed a copious Glossary by a native of 
Craven, 12mo. London, 1824, pp. 125, price 4s. This is a very valuable little book, the work of 
a scholar. — 11. A Glossary of North Country Words in use, by John Trotter Brockett, F.S.A. 
London and Newcastle, 8vo. Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 1825, pp. 243, price 10s. 6d. — 12. Obser- 
vations on some of the Dialects in the West of England, particularly Somersetshire, with 
a Glossary of Words now in use there, and poems and other pieces exemplifying the Dialect, 
by James Jennings, Honorary Secretary of the Metropolitan Literary Institution, London, 
12mo. London, 1825, pp. 191, price 7s.— 13. The Vocabulary of East-Anglia; an attempt to 
record the vulgar tongue of the twin-sister counties, Norfolk and Suffolk, as it existed in the 
last twenty years of the 18th century, and still exists; with proofs of its antiquity from etymo- 
logy and authority, by the late Rev. Robert Forby, Rector of Fincham, Norfolk, 2 vols. 12mo. 
London, 1830, price 11. Is. — 14. A Glossary of Archaic and Provincial Words, by the late 
Rev. Jonathan Boucher, F.S.A. Vicar of Epsom, edited jointly by the Rev. Joseph Hunter, 
F.S.A. and Joseph Stevenson, Esq. part L 1832, part H. 1833, 4to. 

t Forby's Easf-Jnglia, vol. i, p. 18. 



XXVlll ANGLO-SAXON EXISTS IN THE SOMERSET DIALECT. 

21. A few specimens of provincial dialects are given, beginning with 
extracts from Mr. Jennings's neat and valuable little work, being the 
present dialect of that part where the West-Saxon or pure Anglo-Saxon 
was once spoken, and then proceeding to Ea«t-Anglia, and terminating 
with the broad dialect of Craven in Yorkshire. In attempting to give the 
exact pronunciation of each district, some words are so disguised as, at 
the first view, to be scarcely recognised, and occasionally two or more 
words are pronounced, and therefore written, as one w^ord. This is an 
ambiguity which could not be entirely avoided; but an ample com- 
pensation is made for it by giving the words, as far as possible, in the 
pronunciation of the several provincial districts. 

22. Dialects of the West of England, particularly Somersetshire. 
The following are some of the peculiarities observable in the West of 

England. 

The people of Somersetshire, east of the river Parrel, make the third person singular 
of the indicative mood, present tense, to end in th or eth; thus for he loves, he reads, 
they uniformly say, he lovth, he read'th. They use Ise for I, er for he, and her for 

she They sound a as a va. father ; and e as the French e, or as the English a in 

cane, fane, &c Th is sounded as d: for thread they say dread ov dird ; for through 

dro, thrash drash : s as z, Zummerzet for Somerset, &c They invert the order of 

some consonants : for thrush, brush, rush, they say dirsh, birsh, hiish ; for clasp, 

hasp, asp, they use claps, haps, aps They annex y to the infinitive mood, and some 

other parts of many of the common verbs, I cant sewy, he cant reapy, to seicy, to 
nursy : they also prefix letters ; for lost, gone, bought, they say alost, agone, abought. 
— They often make dissyllables of monosyllables: for air, both, fair, fire, sure, &c. 

they say, ayer, boo'dth, fayer, shower, &c I be, thou beest or bist, thee beest, we be, 

they or tha be, are commonly heard ; but rarely or never he be, but he is. — War is 
always used for was and were ; as I war, thee or thou wart, he war, we war, they or 
tha war. — We often hear we'm, you'm, they'm, for we are, you are, they are. — They 
use thic for that ; as thic house, thic man, for that house, that man — The diphthong 
oi is often pronounced wi : for spoil, boil, point, soil, we have spwile, bwile, pwint, 

swile, &c In and, d is often omitted, as you an I. — In the present participle and 

other words in ing, g is omitted ; for loving, hearing, singing, lightning, they say 
lovin, hearin or hirin, zingin, lightnin. 

As specimens of the Somerset dialect, a dedication in verse, and a short 
dialogue in prose, will be sufficient. 

TO THA DWELLERS o' THE WEST. 

Tha fruit o' longvul labour, years. 

In theaze veo leaves at last appears. 

Ta you, tha DweUers o' tha West, 

I'm pleas 'd that tha shood be addresst : 

Vor thaw I now in Lunnun dwell, 

I mine ye still — I love ye well ; 

An niver, niver sholl vorget 

I vust draw'd breath in Zummerzet ; 

Amangst ye liv'd, an left ye zorry, 

As you'll knaw when you hire my storry. 

Theaze little book than take o' me ; 

'Tis all I ha jist now ta gee. 



ANGLO-SAXON EXISTS IN THE EXMOOR DIALECT. XXIX 

FARMER BENNET AN JAN LIDE. 

A Dialogue. 

Farmer Bennet. Jan ! why d won't ye right my shoes ? 

Jan Lide. Bin, maester 'tis zaw cawld, I can't work wi' tha tacker at all ; I've 
a brawk it ten times I'm shower ta da — da vreaze za hord. Why, Hester hanged out 
a kittle-smock ta drowy, an in dree minits a war a vraur as stiff as a pawker ; an 
I can't avoord ta keep a good vier — I wish I cood — I'd zoon right your shoes an 
withers too — I'd zoon yarn zum money, I warnt ye. Can't ye vine zum work vor 
me, maester, theaze hord times — I'll do any theng ta sar a penny. I can drash — 
I can cleave brans — I can make spars — I can thatchy — I can shear ditch, an I can 
gripy too, bit da vreaze za hord. I can wimmy — I can messy or milky nif ther be 
need o't. I ood'n mine dreavin plough or any theng. 

Farmer Bennet. I've a got nothhi vor ye ta do, Jan; bit Mister Boord banehond 
ta I jist now that tha war gwain ta wimmy, an that tha wanted zumbody ta help 'em. 

Jan Lide. Aw, I'm glad o't. I'll hirn auver an zee where I can't help 'em; bit 
I han't a bin athin tha drashel o' Maester Boord's door vor a longful time, bin I thawt 
that missis did'n use Hester well; but I dwon't bear malice, an zaw I'll goo. 

Farmer Bennet. What did Missis Boord za or do ta Hester, than ? 

Jan Lide. Why, Hester, a-ma-be, war zummet ta blame too ; vor she war one 
o'm, d'ye zee, that rawd Skimmerton — thic ma-game that frunted zum o' tha gennel- 
vawk. Tha zed 'twar time to a done wi' jitch litter, or jitch stuff, or I dwon knaw 
what tha call'd it ; bit tha war a frunted wi' Hester about it ; an I zed nif tha war a 
frunted wi' Hester, tha mid be a frunted wi' I. This zet missis's back up, an Hester 
han't a bin a choorin there zunz. Bit 'tis niver-the-near ta bear malice ; and zaw I'll 
goo auver an zee which wa tha wuie da blaw. 

The Exmoor Dialect, 
23. Exmoor is in the north of Somersetshire and Devonshire ; it is so 
called, being the forest or moor in which the river Exe rises. 

AN EXMOOR COURTSHIP. 

Andrew. Well, cozen Magery, cham glad you're come agen. 

Margery. Wull ye eat a croust o' brid and chezee, cozen Andra? 

Andrew. No, es thankee, cozen Magery ; vor es eat a crub as es come along ; 

bezides es went to dinner jest avore Well, bet, cozen Magery, whot onser dest 

gi' ma to tha quesson es put vore now-reert. 

Margery. What quesson was et ? 

Andrew. Why, zure, ya bant zo vorgetvul. Why, tha quesson es put a little 
rather. 

Margery. Es dont know what quesson ye meean ; es begit whot quesson twos. 

Andrew. Why, to tell tha vlat and plane agen, twos thes : Wut ha' ma, ay or no? 

Margery. Whot! marry to Earteen? — Es gee tha zame onser es geed avore, es 
wudent marry the best man in oil Ingland. Es cud amorst zwear chud ne'er marry at 
oil. And more and zo, cozen Andra, cham a told ya keep company wey Tamzen 
Hosegood. And nif ya keep hare company, es'll ha no more to zey to tha. 

Andrew. Ay, thes es Jo Hosegood's flim-flam Oh ! tha very vengance out o'en. 

Margery. No, no; tes none of Jo Hosegood's flim-flam. 

Andrew. Well, well, cozen Magery, be't how twuU, whot caree I? — And zo, 

good-buy, good -buy t' e, cozen Magery Nif voaken be jealous avore they be 

married, zo they mey arter. Zo good-buy, cozen Magery. Chell net trouble ye 
agen vor wone while, chell warndy. 



XXX ANGLO-SAXON EXISTS IN THE DERBYSHIRE DIALECT. 

Margery. \_Calling after hi7n.'\ Bet hearky, hearky a bit, cozen Andra ! Es 
wudent ha ye go away angry nether zure ; and zure you wont deny to see me drenk ? 
Why ya hant a tasted our cyder yet. [^Andrew returns.'] Come, cozen Andra, 
here's t'ye. 

Andrew. Na, vor that matter, es owe no ill-will to enny kesson, net I Bet es 

wont drenk, nether, except ya vurst kiss and vriends. 

The Dialect of East-Anglia, or Norfolk and Svffolk. 

24. " The most general and pervading characteristic of East- Anglian 
pronunciation," says Mr. Forby, "is a narrowness and tenuity, precisely 
the reverse of the round, sonorous, 'mouth-filling' tones of the north of 
England. The broad and open sounds of vowels, the rich and full tones 
of diphthongs, are generally thus reduced. Generally — not universally. 
Some few words become broader, but they become also harsher and 
coarser. This narrowness of utterance is, in some parts, rendered still 
more offensive by being delivered in a sort of shrill whining recitative. 
This prevails chiefly in Suffolk, so as to be called in Norfolk the 'Suffolk 
whine.' The voice of the speaker (or singer) is perpetually running up 
and down through half or a whole octave of sharp notes, with now and 
then a most querulous cadence.* 

The following are a few of the common contractions and changes : Duffus for dove 
or pigeon-house ; wuddus wood-house ; shant shall not ; cant cannot ; onty wont will 
not ; dint did not ; shunt should not ; wunt would not ; mant may not ; warnt were 
not; eent\s,noi; am^isnot; Aeew^ has not ; Aawif had not. — TmMs used for to it ; 

dut do it ; wut with it; het have it; tebhin it has been We hear cup for come up ; 

gup go up ; gout go out ; gin go in ; giz give us The following are very peculiar : 

Tiye here, or k'ere; Kye there; Kye hinder, or Kinder; Kye thinder, for look ye here, 
there, and yonder — Words are often jumbled together, as in this sentence . M'aunt 
bod me ginto tK archard, and call m! uncle into house. 

Derbyshire Dialect. 

25. This dialect is remarkable for its broad pronunciation. In 7ne the 
e is pronounced long and broad, as mee. The / is often omitted after a or o, 
as aw for all, caw call, bowd bold, coud cold. — Words in ing generally 
omit the g, but sometimes it is changed into k; as think for thing, 
lovin for loving. They use con for can; conner for cannot; shanner^ov 
shall not; wool, wooner for will, and will not ; yo for you, &c. 

A Dialogue between Farmer Bennet and Tummus Lide. 

Farmer Bennet. Tummus, why dunner yo mend meh shoon ? 

Tummus Lide. Becoz, mester 'tis zo cood, I conner work wee the tachin at aw; 
I've brockn it ten times I'm shur to de — it freezes zo hard. Why, Hester hung out 
a smock-frock to dry, an in three minits it wor frozzen as stiff as a proker, an 
I Conner afford to keep a good fire — I wish I cud — I'd soon mend yore shoon, an 

uthers tow I'd soon yarn sum munney, I warrant ye. Conner yo find sum work 

for m', mester, these hard times? — I'll doo onny think to addle a penny. I con thresh 

* Vocabulary of East-Anglia, Introduction, p. 82. 



ANGLO-SAXON EXISTS IN THE LANCASHIRE DIALECT. XXXI 

— I con split wood — I con mak spars — I con thack. I con skower a dike, an I con 
trench tow, bur it freezes zo hard. I con winner — I con fother, or milk, if there be 
need on't. I woodner mind drivin plow, or onny think. 

Farm. B. I banner got nothin for ye to doo, Tummus ; bur Mester Boord 
towd me jist now that they wor gooin to winner, an that they shud want sumbody 
to help 'em. 

Tummus L. 0, I'm glad on't. I'll run oor an zee whether I con help 'em ; bur 
I banner bin weein the threshold ov Mester Boord's doer for a nation time, becoz 
I thoot misses didner use Hester well, bur I dunner bear malice, an zo I'll goo. 

Farm. B. What did Misses Boord za or doo to Hester then ? 

Tummus L. Why, Hester may-be wor summet to blame too; for her wor one on 
'em, de ye zee, that jawd Skimmerton, — the mak-gam that frunted zum o' the gente- 
fook. They said 'twor time to dun wee sich litter, or sich stuff, or I dunner know 
what they cawd it ; bur they wor frunted wee Hester bout it ; an I said, if they wor 
frunted wee Hester, they mid bee frunted wee mee. This set misses's back up, an 
Hester banner bin a charrin there sin. But 'tis no use to bear malice ; an zo I'll goo 
oor, and zee which we the winde blows. 

Cheshire Dialect. 

26. One peculiarity in the province is to change, or soften, the pro- 
nunciation of many words in the middle of which the letter / is preceded 
by a or o. 

Thus in common discourse we pronounce bawk for balk, cauf for calf, hauf for 
half, wawk ior ^dXk, foheioY ioW, and St. Awbuns for St. Albans; but in the Cheshire 
dialect, as in all the north, the custom of substituting the o for the a, and the double 
ee for the igh, prevails in a still greater degree : thus we call all aw; always awways; 
\iQi^howd; calf com/; call caz^.'; can cow; Q,o\^cowd; coXicowt; {old fowd; gold 
goivd; false fause; foul fow; fool /oo; fuU/oo; fine/om; hold howd; holt howt; 
half hauf; halfpenny havrpenny; hall haw; long lung; man mon; many mony ; 
manner monner; might meet; mold mowd; pull poo; soft saft; bright hreet; scald 
scawd; stool stoo; right ree^- iyf'metwoin; flight ^ee^; lane loan ox lone ; mol mal; 
sight see; sit seet; such sich. 

The Lancashire Dialect, 

27. Observations on the Lancashire dialect. All and al are generally 
sounded broad, as aw or o : thus, awl haw or ho, awlus for all, hall, always. 
— In words ending in ing, k is used for g, as think, wooink, for thing, 
wooing, &c. — At the end of words d and ed are often changed into t; thus 
behint, wynt, awtert, for behind, wind, awkward. — The d is sometimes 
omitted in and, for which they say an. — It is common, in some places, 
to sound ou and ow ^^ a\ thus tha^ ka or ca, for thou, cow. In other 
places, ou and ow have the sound eaio; thus, for thou, cow, house, mouse, 
they say theaw, keaw, heatcse, meawse. — In some parts o is used for a, 
and a for ; thus, for part, hand, they say port, hont ; and instead of for, 
short, they say far, shart. — The syllable en or 'tz is generally used in the 
plural of verbs, &c. as hafn, lov'n, think^n. — In Lancashire they generally 
speak quick and short, and omit many letters, and often pronounce two or 
three words together ; as, Fll got' or III gut' for I'll go to ; ru?it' for run 



XXXll ANGLO-SAXON EXISTS IN THE CRAVEN DIALECT. 

to ; 7/005^ for she shall ; intle or intHl for if thou will ; / woii'didd*?i for 
I wish you would. 

Tummus and Meary. 

Tummus. Odds me! Meary, whooa the dickons wou'd o thowt o' leeting o thee 
here so soyne this morning ? Where has to bin ? Theaw'rt aw on a swat, I think ; 
for theaw looks primely. 

Meary. Beleemy, Tummus, I welly lost my wynt ; for I've had sitch o'traunce this 
morning as eh neer had e' meh live : for I went to Jone's o' Harry's o'lung Jone's, 
for't borrow their thible, to stur th' furmetry weh, an his wife had lent it to Bet o' my 
gronny's; so 1 skeawrt eend-wey, an' when eh coom there, hoo'd lent it Kester 
o' Dick's, an the dule steawnd 'im for a brindl't cur, he'd mede it int' shoon pegs ! 
Neaw wou'd naw sitch o moon-shine traunce potter any body's plucks ? 

Tummus. Mark whot e tell the, Meary; for I thuik lunger ot fok liv'n an' th' moor 
mischoances they han. 

Meary. Not awlus.— But whot meys o't' sowgh, on seem so dane-kest? For 
I con tell o' I'd fene see o' whick an hearty. 

Tummus. Whick an hearty too! oddzo, but I con tell the whot, its moor in 
bargin ot I'm oather whick or hearty, for 'twur seign peawnd t'a tuppunny jannock, 
I'd bin OS deeod os o dur nele be this awec; for th' last oandurth boh one me measter 
had lik't o killt meh: on just neaw, os shure os thee and me ar stonning here, I'm 
actilly running meh country. 

The Dialect of Craven. 

28. The Deanery of Craven is in the West Riding of Yorkshire. 
A short specimen will be sufficient. 

Dialogue between Farmer Giles and his neighbour Bridget. 

Giles. Good mornin to the, Bridget, how isto ? 

Bridget. Deftly as out, and as cobby as a lop, thanksto. 

Giles. Wha, marry, thou looks i gay good fettle. 

Bridget. What thinksto o't' weather? Awr house is vara unrid and grimy, 
t'chimla smudges an reeks seea, an mackst' reckon, at used to shimmer and glissen, 
nowght bud soote an muck. 

Giles. It's now a vara lithe day, bud there war a girt roak, an a rag o't' fells at 
delleet, an it looked feaful heavisome. 

Bridget. I oft think a donky, mislin, deggy mornin is a sign o't' pride o't' weather, 
for it oft worsels up, an is maar to be liked ner t' element full o' thunner packs er 
a breet, scaumy sky. 

Giles. Wha, when't bent's snod, hask, cranchin an slaap, it's a Strang sign of 
apash. 

Bridget. I've oft obsarved there hes been a downfaw soon efter ; bud for sure, 
I cannot gaum mich be ouer chimla at prisent, it's seea smoored up wi mull an brash. 
Yusterday about noon, t' summer-goose flackered at naya lile rate, an t' element, at 
edge o' dark, wor feaful full of filly tails an hen scrattins — Thou knaws that's a sartain 
sign ov a change, sometimes I've knaan it sile and teem efter. 

An Alphabetical Glossary of most of the peculiar Words used in the 
preceding specimens of Provincial Dialects. 

29. K-mk-hQ as may he, perhaps: s. Arter after : e. Auver over: s. 
Aw all: d. Awlus always: I. — Banehond to intimate: s. Becoz 



ANGLO-SAXON—GLOSSARY TO THE PROVINCIAL DIALECTS. XXXHl 

because: d. Begit to forget: e. Brans brands, fire-wood: s. Brash 
ra^h, impetuous: c. Bur but: d. — Cawd called: d. Cham I am: e. 
Chavr'm Jobbing: d. Che\ I shall ; e. Chorrm Jobbing : s. Cobby 
livelij r c. Conner can not : d. Cood cold : d. Cranchin scranching^ 
grinding, crackling: c. Crub a crumb: e. — ^^ggy foggy: c. De 
day: d. Deftly decently, well: c. Dickons, Deuce the devil: d. 
Donky toet, dark, gloomy : c. Drash to thrash: s. Dunner do not: d. 
Dvvon't don't, do not : s. — Es, ise /, is : e. — Fettle condition : c. Fok 
folk: I. Foiher to fodder : d. — Gaum to knotv, distinguish: c. Gee 
to give : e. Girt great, friendly : c, Gripy to cut in gripes, to cut 
a trench: s. — ma have: s. 'Ran have: I. Hanner has or have not : d. 
Hask dry, parched: c. Hirn to run : s. Hoo'd her had, she had: I. — 
Jannock oat cake, bread made of oatmeal : I. Jawd scolded : d. Jitch 
such: 5. — Keason Christian : e. Kittle-smock a 5?woc^3/roc^: s. — Lile 
Utile: c. Lithe blithe, mild: c. Lop a flea: c. — Marry truly: c. 
Mess, messy to serve cattle : s. Mine to mind, regard: s. Mislin misty, 
small rain : c. Mul dust or refuse of turf or peat : c. — Nation great, 
very: d. ^ever-the-near useless: s. 'N ow-reert now right. Just now: e. 
— o' of: s. Oandurth afternoon : I. Odds me bless me : I. Ood'n would 
not: s. — Fash af all of rain : c. Fridefneness : c. Vroker a poker : d. 
— Rag mist : c. Rather 5oo/?, early: e. Reckon, reek on what is smoked 
on, an iron bar over the fire to support a boiling pot: c. Reek to 
smoke : c. Roak a reek, smoke : c. — Sar to earn : s. Seign seven : l. 
Shimmer to shine : c. Shoon shoes : d. Si\e to pour with rain: c. Sin 
since : d. Skeawr to make haste : L Slaap slippery : c. Smoored 
smothered: c. Snod smooth: c. Sowgh to sigh: I. Spars pointed 
sticks, doubled and twisted in the middle to fasten thatch upon a roof: s. 
Summet someiohat : d. — Tacker : s. tachin : d. a waxed thread. Teem 
to pour out : c. Th4 they : s. Thack to thatch : d. Thaw though : s. 
Theaw thou : L Theaze these, this : s. Thibble a thin piece of wood 
to stir meat in a pot : I. Think thing : d. Towd told : d. Traunce 
a troublesome Journey : I. ^Twar it was: s, TvfuW as it will : e. — Vine 
to find: 5. — Warnt to warrant, assure: s. Whick quick, alive: I, 
Wimmy to winnow : s. Wine wind : s. Withers others : s. Wood- 
ner would not : d. Worsel to wrestle : c. Wynt wind: L — Ya you: e. 
Yarn to earn : s. Yo you : d. Yore your : d. — Zavv so : s. Zo so : d. 
Zunz since : s. 

Contractions, c. Craven, d. Derbyshire, e. Exmoor. I. Lancashire, 
s. Somerset. 

30. Many expressive Anglo-Saxon words, which are no longer in use 
among the refined, have been retained in the provincial dialects. These 
then ought not to be neglected. The facility and simplicity of combining 
several short indigenous words to express any complex idea, practised by 
the Anglo-Saxons and other Gothic nations, is now too seldom used. 
Instead of adopting technical terms from other languages, or forming 

/ 



I 



XXXIV ANGLO-SAXON EXTENT OF ENGLISH. 

them from the Greek or Latin, as is the present English custom, our 
Anglo-Saxon forefathers formed words equally expressive by composing 
them from their own radical terms. For our literature they used boc- 
craeft hook-craft, from boc a book, craeft art, science; for arithmetic 
rimcraeft, from rim a number, craeft art ; for astronomy tungelcraeft, from 
tungel a star, Sec. If, however, we have lost in simplicity, we have gained 
in copiousness and euphony. In collecting from other languages, the 
English have appropriated what was best adapted to their purpose, and 
thus greatly enriched their language. Like bees they have diligently 
gathered honey from every flower.* They have now a language which, 
for copiousness, power, and extensive use, can scarcely be surpassed. It 
is not only used in England, Scotland, and Ireland, but in the whole 
of North America and Australia : it prevails in the West Indies, and is 
more or less spoken in our vast possessions in the east. Indeed, wherever 
civilization, science, and literature prevail, there the English language is 
understood and spoken, 

* iCamden observes : " Whereas our tongue is mixed, it is no disgrace. The Italian is 
pleasant, but without sinewes, as a still fleeting water. The French delicate, but even nice 
as a woman, scarce daring to open her lippes, for fear of marring her countenance. The 
Spanish majesticall, but fulsome, running too much on the o, and terrible like the Divell in 
a play. The Dutch manlike, but withall very harsh, as one ready at every word to picke 
a quarrell. Now we, in borrowing from them, give the strength of consonants to the Italian ; 
the full sound of words to the French ; the variety of terminations to the Spanish ; and the 
mollifying of more vowels to the Dutch ; and so, like bees, we gather the honey of their good 
properties, and leave the dregs to themselves. And thus, when substantialnesse combineth 
with delightfulnesse, fullnesse with finenesse, seemlinesse with portlinesse, and currentnesse 
with staydnesse, how can the language which consisteth of all these, sound other than full of 
all sweetnesse?" — Camden's Remains, p. 38, edit, of 1623. 



In the following comparison of the Anglo-Saxon with the ancient and 
modern Friesic, though there may be, in some minor points, a little 

^ diversity of opinion between the author and his friend the Rev. J. H. 
Halbertsma, yet it would be unjust to make alterations. Mr. Halbertsma 
has, therefore, been always permitted to speak for himself, and to give his 
reasons in his own way. Where opinions vary, the author has generally 
referred to both statements, leaving it to the reader to form his own 
conclusions from the evidence adduced. Considering this the most 
equitable mode of statement, he has adopted it, not only in regard to the 
valuable Essay of Mr. Halbertsma, but towards the works of those from 
whom he may differ far more widely. He is too conscious of his own 
liability to err, to be overconfident in his own views. He has given his 
reasons or authorities, and all that he can confidently assert is, that it has 

■ bjeen his constant and earnest wish and endeavour to avoid the natural 
bias towards the idol self, or that of any party, and to discover and follow 
truth, whether it favour his own previous opinions, or those of others. 
Perhaps he may have failed even here. If he have, he will, as soon as 
it is pointed out, gladly make every acknowledgement and reparation in 
his power. 



^xxv 



IV.— FRIESIC* 



Ancient and Modern Friesicf compared with Anglo-Saxon. 

1. Anglo-Saxon being one of those languages called dead, no infor- 
mation about its pronunciation can be obtained from the people themselves. 
Of course, all knowledge in these matters depends upon the written letters, 
and upon determining the sound of those letters. 

2. This, however, is a very difficult task. There is no connexion at 
all between visible marks and audible sounds : the letters serve more to 
indicate the genus, than the species of the sounds, and use alone can 
teach us the shades (nuances) of pronunciation. 

* " In comparing kindred languages with each other, the scholar will generally start from 
the point where he was born. Rask usually refers the A.-S. to the Scandinavian tongues, 
especially to the Icelandic. Germans have chiefly recourse to the Theotisc, and what is 
called by them Saxon. Others will bring it back to the dialects of their country ; all with the 
same aim of elucidating the grammar, or discovering the sounds in A.-S. The reason of this 
is evidently the intimate acquaintance each of them has with the old and modern dialects of 
his own country, and most likely the scholar would compare the A.-S. with another class of 
dialects, if all the tongues of the Germanic branch were as thoroughly known to him as those 
of his native country. Being a native Friesian, and comparing the A.-S. chiefly with the 
Friesic, I could scarcely escape the suspicion of having yielded to the same influence as 
others, if I did not explain my reasons. This, I hope, will be a suSicient excuse for my 
entering into some details about the primitive relationship between the Anglo-Saxons and the 
Friesians. 

"As every scholar has his own point devue in matters of language, I beg leave to have mine. 
If my principles were unknown to my readers, my rules, depending on these principles, would, 
as void of foundation, be unintelligible. It is for this reason that I have here inserted some 
of my opinions about the pedigree and comparison of languages, appearing properly to 
belong more to general grammar than to my present subject, 

"As history often fails in showing the full truth of my opinion about the relationship between 
the Angles and the Friesians, I had recourse to the languages. Hence a view of the 
remnants of the Fx'iesic both dead and still flourishing is here presented, and compared with 
the English and A.-S. It pleases not the muse of history to speak but late, and then in 
a very confused manner. Yes, she often deceives, and before she is come to maturity, she 
seldom distinctly tells the truth. Language never deceives, but speaks more distinctly, 
though removed to a far higher antiquity. 

" It is at the request of my dear friend Bosworth that I write in English, a language in 
which I have not been favoured with any instruction. I possess only some dim feeling of 
analogy between its manner of speaking and my native tongue. I, therefore, grant to my 
English readers the full freedom of smiling at my thousand and one Friesianisms, while 
I shall have reached my aim if I am only understood. 

"J. H. Halbertsma." 
Deventer, August \Qth, 1834. 

t Mr. Halbertsma, to promote Friesian literature, amongst other works, has published 
Hulde aan Gysbert Japiks, 2 vols. 8vo. Bolsward, 1824-1827. — De Lapekoer fen Gabe Scroar, 
12mo. Dimter, 1834. — Friesche Spelling, 18mo. 1835. — The following are by other hands : 
Dr. Epkeraare published Gysbert Japicx Friesche Rijmlerye, 4to. Ljeauwert, 1821. — Woor- 
denboek op de gedichten van Japicx, 4to. id. 1824. — Mr. Postumus translated into Friesic 
two of Shakspeare's plays, entitled, De Keapman fen Venetien in Julius Cesar, 8vo. Grintz, 
1829. — Jonkh. Mr. Montanus Hettema has shown his patriotism by giving to the public the 
following valuable works : — Emsiger Landrecht Beknopte handleiding om de oude Friesche 
taal, 8vo. Leeuwarden, 1829. — Proeve van een Friesch en Nederlandsch Woordenboek, 8vo. 
Leeuwarden, 1832.— Friesche Spraakleer van R. Rask, 8vo. id. 1832.— Jurisprudentia Frisica, 
of Friesche Regtkennis, een handschrift uit de vijftiende eeuw, 8vo. id. 1834-35, 2 parts, 
&c. &c. Many more Friesians ought to be named as great promoters of their literature. — 
Professors Wassenberg, Hoekstra, Mr. HoeufFt, Wielinga Huber, Scheltema, Beuker 
Andreae, van Halmael, and others. See paragraphs 86 — 102, for an account of ancient 
Friesic works. 



XXXVl PRIESIC — DIALECTS OF. 

3. The simple sounds we assign to letters, bears no proportion to the 
diphthongal nature of almost every sound in A.-S. 

The inhabitants of Hindelopen still retain some A.-S. sounds undefiled. When 
I first heard some old people speak in this little town, I was quite astonished how 
sounds so compounded and diphthongal as those could be pronounced with so much 
ease and fluency. What is more simple in writing than the words leod, A.-S. leod 
people; neugen, A.-S. nigen nine? When you hear these words at Hindelopen, 
you will find that the pronunciation baffles every effort of the grammarian to invent 
signs giving an adequate idea of its nature. In the eu you hear first the y, then the 
eu blended with the French ou, ending in oi. Such words as leod people, and neugen- 
end-neugentig nine-and-ninety, are, for this reason, Hindelopean shibboleths above all 
imitation of their own countrymen, the other Friesians. 

4. Besides this, the sounds of letters are in restless fluctuation. If we 
could trace the changes in the sound of letters, our success would exceed 
our hopes ; but even this discovery could not give an adequate idea of the 
sound of letters in use at any period, for sounds are altered when the 
letters remain still unchanged. The English and French languages give 
full proof of this truth. 

When they enter into the class of dead languages, there will still be greater difficul- 
ties in ascertaining the pronunciation of chateau, and eschew. When, after long 
investigation, you discover that chateau ought to be pronounced ka-te-au, as the 
Picardians pronounce it at this very day, you find that by the tyranny of custom it is 
enervated to sya-to ; when also you discover that the English first pronounced 
eschew, and afterwards es-tshow (ou French), how few readers will believe your 
assertions, seeing that these words remain expressed by the same letters. 

5. The sounds of a language, like other things, are, by time, subject 
to mutations, and these changes are homogeneous or heterogeneous, 
according as the cause of change is internal or external. In this way, 
diphthongs become vowels, and vowels again diphthongs. An elaborate 
treatise would point out the changes in a language, if an uninterrupted 
succession of MSS. of different ages could be procured. 

6. Independent of these succeeding general changes of the whole 
language, there are diversities existing at the same time, called dialects. 
The A.-S. is subject to these diversities in the highest degree, and with 
a free people it could not be otherwise. When a nation easily submits to 
an absolute sway, individuals have little attachment to what is their own 
in character and opinions, and easily suffer themselves to be modelled in 
one general mould of the court or priesthood. On the other hand, when 
a nation, as the Angles and Friesians, is jealous of its liberty, and will 
only submit to the law enacted for the public good, while every individual 
regulates his private affairs for himself, the slightest peculiarity of cha- 
racter, unrestrained by the assumed power of any mortal, developes itself 
freely in the proper expressions, and every individuality is preserved. 
This I believe is the reason why in the province of Friesia are more 
peculiarities than in the other six provinces of the present kingdom of the 
Netherlands, and more in England alone than in the whole of Europe. 



FRIESIO DIVERSITY IRREGULARITY IN SPELLING A.-S. WORDS. XXXVll 

Applying this principle in language, the very mirror of the soul, we find 
the same variety ; so that among a people so fond of liberty as the Angles 
and Friesians, not only every district, but every village, nay, every hamlet, 
must have a dialect of its own. The diversity of dialects since the French 
Revolution of 1795, is much decreasing by the centralisation of power 
taking daily more effect in the Netherlands: the former republic, by 
leaving to every village the management of its domestic affairs, preserved 
every dialect unimpaired. Nevertheless, at this very time, those living on 
the coast of Eastmahorn, in Friesia, do not understand the people of 
Schiermonikoog, a little island with one village of the same name, almost 
in sight of the coast. The Hlndelopians speak a dialect unintelligible to 
those living at the distance of four miles from them. Nay, the Friesians 
have still dialects within a dialect. 

In the village where I was born, we said indiscriminately, after, efter, and aefter, 
A.-S. sefter; tar, and taer, A.-S. tare; par, and paer, A.-S. pera ; tarre, and taere 
consumere, A.-S. teran ; kar, and kaer, A.-S. eyre ; hi lei, and hi lai, A.-S. laeg ; 
perfect tense of ik lizz', hi leit, A.-S. liege, lits ; smarre, and smaere, A.-S. smerian ; 
warre and wasre, warge and waerge, A.-S. weran, werian tueri, resistere. On this 
matter I can produce a very striking example in the centre of Friesian nationality. 
It is now, I believe, sixteen years since I spoke to an old woman at Molquerum, 
a village now almost lying in ruins, but still divided mto seven little islands, called 
Pollen, joined to each other by (breggen A.-S. bricgas) little bridges. Now the good 
woman told me in her homely style, that when she was a child, every island had its 
peculiar way of pronouncing, and that when an inhabitant of any of the villages 
entered her mother's house, she could easily ascertain to which Pol the person 
belonged, merely by some peculiarity of speech. Dependence may be placed on this 
fact, as I have ascertained its truth by strict inquiry. I have no doubt the same 
peculiarity was observable in almost every village of the Anglo-Saxons. Every 
Englishman who notices the diversity of dialects to be found in Yorkshire, Durham, 
Northumberland, Cumberland, or Lancashire, and by these judges of the rest, and 
considers what they have formerly been, will perhaps enter, in some measure, into 
my views. 

7. This fact fully accounts for the discrepancies in the forms of words, 
occurring nearly in every page of a genuine A.-S. author. Not writing 
by established, often arbitrary rules of grammar, he wrote just as he 
spoke ; his writing was, therefore, the true representation of his dialect. 

8. There still exists another cause, which, though not less productive 
of variety in writing, ought to be carefully distinguished from variety of 
dialect. The diphthongal nature of the whole system of A.-S. vowels made 
it difficult for every writer to know by what letters to indicate the proper 
sounds of his words. Unable to satisfy himself, he often interchanged 
kindred vowels in the same words, at one time putting a or eo, and after- 
wards ce and y. Diversities arising from this cause are of the most 
frequent occurrence even in the oldest Anglo-Saxon MSS. 

9. This diversity in the spelling of a word is of the greatest importance 
to one who would ascertain the true pronunciation of the Anglo-Saxon. 
While the writer is groping about him for proper letters, we guess the 



XXXVllI FRIESIC — LAWS OF SPEECH. 

sound he wished to express by assuming some middle sound between the 
letters he employs. This advantage would have been totally lost to us if 
the orthography of the Anglo-Saxon could boast of the same uniformity 
as that of the English recorded in Walker's Pronouncing Dictionary. 

10. In this respect we owe a thousand thanks to Lye, who gives us 
the Anglo-Saxon words as he found them, and never alters the orthography 
to suit his own views. 

At the head of his articles he occasionally attributes to the word a vowel which it 
has not. For instance, he puts the a in staf and lat, which these words have only 
when a second syllable is added, as in late, stafa: when monosyllables, they are 
written stasf a staff, last late. Whether he considered the vowel he inserts as the 
primitive one, or did not know the laws of permutation in Anglo-Saxon vowels, 
matters not, as it is impossible to be misled by them, standing alone and without any 
authority. He moreover rectifies his faults by his citations, in which neither staf nor 
lat occur. Such trifling mistakes should not obscure his immense merits in faithfully 
giving us the vowels of the Anglo-Saxon authors, with all their odd and lawless 
exertions to express the sounds they heard. 

11. I fear that those who credit what I have stated about the diversity 
of Anglo-Saxon and Friesian dialects, will consider these infinite variations 
as the curse of Babel. They will, however, permit me to say, that human 
speech in general has its mechanical rules fixed by the frame of the organs 
of speech, to which all tongues submit. This frame admits modifications 
to which every nation yields. These modifications admit of farther modi- 
fications, to which not only districts, but even villages are liable. There- 
fore, every language is of necessity what it is, and it is not in the power of 
fancy or choice to obey or disobey these laws. From this cause proceeds 
much of the diversity in language. 

12. From the sounds which can be pronounced, every nation selects 
those which are best adapted to the frame of his organs, and the feelings 
he endeavours to express. 

Now this choice, in which we are free, opens an immense field for diversities in 
tongues ; but, whatever the choice may be, the first grasp decides all the rest : every 
consonant brings its corresponding consonant, and the vowel its corresponding vowel. 
In a word, every language is a compact, well-framed whole, in which all the parts 
sympathize with each other. Insult one of its essential properties, and the disgrace will 
be felt through the whole system. Remove one series of its original place, and all the 
others will follow the motion. What is true of any language may be asserted of any 
of its branches or dialects. Reason and never-failing experience vindicate the justice 
of these conclusions. The dialect corresponds to itself in its dialects, and the prin- 
ciple on which the form of a word is framed, is always followed in similar cases. If 
this analogy be unobserved, it is not the fault of the dialect, but of the dim sight of 
the observer. The majority of grammarians deem dialects lawless deviations in the 
speech of the dull mob, to which they attach all that is coarse, vulgar, confused, and 
ridiculous. Indeed, the chaos of tongues then begins, when grammarians, ignorant 
of the operations of the mind, and its exertions to express its thoughts, obtrude their 
arbitrary rules,* and, by heterogeneous mixtures, ever fertile in producing others, set 

* This assertion may be verified by many examples in English. On this point, the 467th 
paragraph of the Principles prefixed to Walker's Pronouncing Dictionary, is very striking. 



FRIESIC HOW TO DISCOVER THE A.-S. PRONUNCIATION. XXXIX 

the well-framed]sys,tem of sounds in inextricable confusion. Regardless of the interior 
structure, wholly unknown to eyes gliding over the surface of things, they use language 
as the rich but ignorant man his library, who, deeming it to be a matter of chief impor- 
tance that his books should be of the same size, ordered them all to be cut to 8vo. and 
12mo. The public is not generally expert in forming a judgment on these matters : 
weighing no argument, it regards only the tone of the proposer, and places its con- 
fidence in him who is the boldest in his assertions, though he is generally the most 
ignorant — for the greatest ignorance is ever accompanied with the greatest assurance. 
However men may suffer themselves to be imposed upon, nature still defends her 
rights. As our bodies have hidden resources and expedients, to remove the obstacles 
which the very art of the physician often puts in its way, so language, ruled by an 
indomitable inward principle, triumphs in some degree over the folly of grammarians. 
Look at the English, polluted by Danish and Norman conquests, distorted in its 
genuine and noble features by old and recent endeavours to mould it after the 
French fashion, invaded by a hostile entrance of Greek and Latin words, threatening 
by increasing hosts to overwhelm the indigenous terms ; in these long contests 
against the combined might of so many forcible enemies, the language, it is true, has 
lost some of its power of inversion in the structure of sentences, the means of 
denoting the differences of gender, and the nice distinctions by inflexion and termina- 
tion — almost every word is attacked by the spasm of the accent and the drawing of 
con-sonants to wrong positions ; yet the old English principle is not overpowered. 
Trampled down by the ignoble feet of strangers, its spring still retains force enough 
to restore itself; it lives and plays through all the veins of the language, it impreg- 
nates the innumerable strangers entering its dominions with its temper, and stains 
them with its colour, not unlike the Greek, which in taking up oriental words 
stripped them of their foreign costume, and bid them appear as native Greeks. 

13. But to return. — In human language, as in the whole creation, the 
great law of beauty and happiness is this — variety in unity. Though there 
are great difficulties in discovering the true pronunciation of Anglo-Saxon, 
we have still left to us two means of investigation. First, the comparison 
of its vowels and consonants with those of a kindred dialect existing at 
a more remote period ; and secondly, the same comparison with a kindred 
dialect of posterior age, both as it is written and still spoken^for, however 
altered in some of its features, it must still retain genuine traits of its 
original countenance. The Gothic or Moeso-Gothic* will answer for the 
first, and the Friesic the second ; two languages combining the advantage 
that the nations who spoke them bordered on the Anglo-Saxons, the 
McEso-Goths on the north, and the Friesians on the south, and by 
enclosing the Anglo-Saxons, limit their influence, both as it respects their 
geography and language. 

14. It is evident that all the tongues spoken by the great people which 
the Romans called Germani, considered^ on a large scale, appear as 
dialects all issuing from one common source. There was a time when all 
these languages were one. If we could mount sufficiently high in the 
scale of time, we should arrive at the period when the progenitors of all 
the tribes were gathered within the compass of a little camp under a few 

* See VIL §. 1, and note 2. 



Xl FRIESIC NAMES OF NUMBERS. 

tents, and spoke one language, containing the germs of all the diversities 
by which the dialects of their posterity were distinguished. The nearer 
we approach this time and place, the more will all the Germanic tongues 
become similar to each other, and their boundaries vanish by which at 
present they are enclosed. For this reason, the oldest and best poet of 
the Greeks, retaining symptoms of a particular dialect, blends in his poems 
all the dialects of Greece. In regard to antiquity, the Gothic of Ulphilas, 
being written about a.d. 360, has the precedence of any Anglo-Saxon 
MSS. by four or five hundred years. In comparing the Anglo-Saxon 
with the Gothic, we shall have the double advantage of measuring by 
a standard approaching nearest the genuine dimensions, and of approach- 
ing to a nearer contact with those kindred tongues which subsequently 
developed themselves into more striking differences. 

15. The nearer we approach the source, the more pure will be the 
water. If the development of language were left to its natural course, 
without any disturbing shock or foreign influence, all things would change 
according to the established rules of nature, and every word bear in its 
changes some resemblance to its primitive state. But every age brings 
on some disturbance of the system, and the intermixture of foreign ingre- 
dients, originating in wars, migrations, revolutiofis, and other causes, 
introduces so many changes, that in some respects the rule is overthrown 
by the exceptions, and the language rendered quite unfit for comparison. 
A sufficient reason can be-given for the present state of disorder only by 
ascending to the period of order, and not by a comparison of the dialects 
lying in their present confusion. Now the higher the step on which we 
can observe the language, the less it is disturbed in its original structure, 
and the better adapted for the standard of comparison. It is the high 
age of the Gothic, and its real character, known by what is remaining of 
it, which in these respects stamps its value. Spoken by one unmixed 
tribe of warriors, it appears on the stage fresh and unpolluted, quite 
original and sui generis, with members of due proportion, and dressed in 
its own native costume, without a shred of foreign ornament. 

16. The advantages derived from a comparison with a language of this 
sort, may be exemplified by some names of the numbers. 

The English havmg composed eleven and twelve from en, twe, and lifen, you would 
conclude that they would express unus, duo, by en, twe ; but no, they say one, 
two. The Dutchman says twaalf, veertien, from twa and veer; but his simple 
numbers are twe, vier. The German has his zwanzig twenty, and zwei two. 
The country Friesian uses olwe, toalf, tretjen, with manifest indication of Runic 
admixture, from ellefu eleven, tolf twelve, l^rettan thirteen, from the Icelandic tvek and 
Jjrir. Their twenty has the sound of tweintich — ought they not to say also to two, 
trae three, one one, as the Hindelopians do ? Rather incongruously they use ien, 
twa, trye ; and having Qouwer^wr, they compose tsjien with vier into ijirtjen^M/-- 
teen. Hence, when the numbers were composed, the English liad the Dutch en and 
twe ; the Dutch had the Gothic, Anglo-Saxon, and modern Friesic twa, with the 
Germans ; the country Friesians bad the one, two, of the English. Would not these 



FRIESIC FORMATION OF NUMERALS. xH 

tongues, when taken as a basis for analogical research, lead into a thousand piistakes ? 
If in English the number eleven were unknown to you, would you not say, from 
analogy, that it was formed from one, on-leven contracted into olven? It is not 
known in Gothic, but we may be sure that ai in ains one, will not be disowned in 
ainlif, as twa is not in twalif, nor twaim duobus in twaimtigum (d. pi.) twenty. In 
the same analogical manner the Anglo-Saxons compose words, l^reo three, )?reotyne 
thirteen, twegen two, originally twen, twenluf contracted to twelf ; an by pushing the 
accent aen-d-lufan. Does not Kero make, from zuene two, zuelifin twelve? In 
Otfrid, from zuei two, zueinzig ? Finally, does not the old Friesian, from twia twice, 
or twi, Ab. 1, 93; thre three, Ab.. 177, tras Hindelopian ; fiuwer /owr, flower, Ab. 
1,5,87, form analogically twilif twelve, Ab. 14; thredtine thirteen, Ab. 19, 93; 
fi\x\>}ex\me fourteen, Ab. 19, 94? 

17. There still exists another anomaly in the numerals. 

The Greeks and Romans, counting only by tens, composed their numbers from ten 
to twenty with 8eKa, decem ten ; ipdEica, undecim eleven ; SvcoSeKa, duodecim twelve. 
The German tribes form the same numerals in a similar manner, except eleven and 
twelve, which were composed with Ger. lif ; ^.->S'. laefan, lif, lef, I'f, in other dialects. 
But as this anomaly entered our numeral system in a period anterior to the history of 
our tongues, and is common to all the Germanic languages, the analogy between the 
kindred dialects is not disturbed by these irregularities, but rather advanced. 

18. The cause of this disturbance lies in the old practice of using both 
ten and twelve as fundamental numbers. 

The advance was by ten, thus )?rittig. Country Friesic tritich ; feowertig, Ab. 2, &c. 
but on arriving at sixty the series was finished, and another begun, denoted by 
prefixing hund. This second series proceeded to one hundred and twenty, thus : 
hundnigontig wme#3^ ; \i\m6.ieo\\t\g a hundred ; hundenlufontig a hundred and ten ; 
hundtwelftig a hundred and twenty : here the second series concluded. It thus 
appears, that the Anglo-Saxons did not know our hundred = 100, as the chief 
division of numbers ; and, though they counted from ten to ten, they, at the same 
time, chose the number twelve as the basis of the chief divisions. As we say 
5 X 10 == 50, 10 X 10 = 100, they multiplied 5 and 10 by 12, and produced 60 and 
120. When the Scandinavians adopted a hundred as a chief division [100 = 10 x 10], 
they still retained one hundred and twenty ; and calling both these numbers hundred, 
they distinguished them by the epithets little or ten hundred, lill-hundrad or hundrad 
tiraed, and great or the twelve number hundred, stor-hundrade or hundrad tolfraed. 
The Danes count to forty by tens, thus, tredive thirty, fyrretyve forty ; and then 
commence by twenties, thus, halvtrediesindstyve, Hterally in A.-S. J?ridda healf siSon 
twentig* [two twenties], and the third twenty half, i. e. fifty. The Icelanders call 
2500 half l^ridie ^usand, \^Dut. derdehalfduizend,] i. e. two thousand, and the third 
thousand half; firesindotyve I four-times twenty] eighty, and so on to a hundred. 
The Francs, being a mixture of kindred nations from the middle of Germany, when 
they entered Gallia, partly adopted the Anglo-Saxon mode of numeration, and partly 
that of the Danes, and they afterwards translated verbally their vernacular names of 

* The ellipsis of the two twenties is supplied in the expression twa geare and |jridde healf 
two t/ears and half the third year, literally in Frs. c. twa jier in 't tredde heal, but custom con- 
tracts it to tredde heal jier. Hickes compares this ellipsis with the Scotch expression half 
ten, which is also the But. half tien, but in this he is not accurate. The Country Friesians 
not having this ellipsis, prove that it must be supplied in another way. They say, healwei 
tsjienen half way of the present hour to ten o'clock. Dr. Dorow has also fallen into the same 
mistake, p. 127, Denhndler, I. 2 and 3. 



Xlii FRIESIC — THE USE OF GOTHIC. 

the numerals by Latin words. From twenty to fifty it proceeds in the usual manner, 
vingt, trente, quarante, cinquante, soixants ; but having arrived at seventy, the same 
place where the Anglo-Saxons commenced with hund, hundseofontig, it uses 
soixantedix, quatrevingt, just as the Danes express eighty by Hresindstyve four-times 
twenty. As it appears that the old Germans had two fundamental numbers, ten and 
twehe, it follows that eleven and twelve are the last two numerals of the twelve series, 
and the^r5^ two in the ten series ; hence perhaps came the use of the termination lif 
or luf, in eleven and twelve. 

19. Let us still add another example. 

The conjugation of the Anglo-Saxon verb stigan ascendere, and the Gothic steigan, 
is thus inflected : ic stige, steiga ; he stihts, steigith he ascends ; he stah, staig he 
ascended; we stigon, stigum we ascended. Here it appears, that the Gothic ei 
corresponds with the A.-S. i ; ai with a ; i with i. Now I conclude, if the evolution 
of both languages was regulated by the same principle, there must be an analogy 
between the vowels in similar instances. Indeed we do observe the same analogy 
preserved in verbs of the same class. Let us take, for instance, gripan, arisan, and 
spiwan : 

A.-S. gripan to gripe ; gripe, griptS ; grap? gripon. 

Maes, greipan to gripe ; greipa, greipith ; graip, gripum. 

^-aS*. arisan to ame, arise, arist; aras, arison. 

Moes. reisan to arise ; reisa, reisith ; rais, risum. 

A.-S. STpiwan to vomit ; spiwe, spiw^ ; spaw, spiwun. 

Moes. speiwan to spit ; speiwa, speiwith ; spaiw, spiwum. 

20. These instances are all regular, but as soon as ever the accustomed 
evolution is disturbed in its course, the analogy is gone. 

Thus, the verb scinan to shine, ic seine I shine, he sciniS he shines, we scinon 
we shone, corresponds to skeinan, skeina, skeinith, skinum. The long a, however, 
in scan, Gothic skain, by some error being changed into short a, this short a is 
converted into eat and forms scean shone. It has already been observed, that every 
dialect corresponds in its several parts, and that a certain form in the present tense 
brings on a certain form in the perfect tense. Of course the practice of some gram- 
marians, in forming the conjugation of a verb out of the present tense of one dialect, and 
the perfect tense of another dialect, is contrary to the first rule of sound analogy. If 
any dialect had scunan or sceonan, the perfect tense scean would not be an exception, 
as it is when appertaining to scinan. 

21. It is a most happy circumstance, that the Gothic, and not the 
Theotisc, had the advantage of being recorded in the oldest monument of 
Germanic literature. Though much of the coincidence of this language 
with all its kindred dialects may be owing to its age, it owes still more in 
this respect to its locality in the genealogy of language. 

22. It is hardly necessary to observe, that there is scarcely a single 
word in the A.-S. which we do not also find in all the kindred German 
dialects. We do not ask whether an A.-S, word can be found in the 
language of the Scandinavians, the Goths, or Theotiscans, but, to which 
of these it has the nearest relationship ? In an etymological point of view, 
the great point is to ascertain the species, and not merely the genus ; to 
discover to which particular dialect a word is most closely allied, and not 
to be satisfied with pointing out to what sort of language it belongs. 



FRIESIC — GOTHIC THE OLDEST GERMAN. xliii 

23. There are three chief species, of which the Anglo-Saxon and the 
Friesic take the left side, the Theotisc or Alemannic the right side, and 
the Icelandic, Moeso-Gothic, Westphalian or Saxon, and Netherlandish, 
the middle : that is, so far as the vowels and consonants are concerned. 

The Anglo-Saxon agrees in the consonants with the middle series, represented by 
the Moeso-Gothic, but in some important points it differs from the Mceso- Gothic and 
the Theotisc in its vowels, and has a system of its own. On the other hand, the 
Theotisc agrees with the Gothic in its vowels, having regard to the lapse of time and 
dialectic variations. In the consonants, the Theotisc is as different from Gothic and 
Anglo-Saxon, as the Anglo-Saxon is in its vowels from the Gothic and Theotisc, and 
I venture to say still more original ; for, the consonants have not only quitted their 
old ranks, but those into which they have entered are also disorbed. The Gothic, 
then, being allied to the consonants of the Anglo-Saxon and the vowels of the 
Theotisc, is thus the proper standard of comparison for all the Gothic tongues, 
having been, from its locality, connected with them all. Thus the Gothic diups deep 
is allied by the vowels iu to the Theotisc tiuf, and by the consonants d and p to the 
Anglo-Saxon deop. 

24. The Gothic has some peculiarities, which, whether they arise from 
its place in the pedigree of tongues, or its seniority, exemplify similar pecu- 
liarities in other languages. 

For instance, the Icelandic is noted for the termination r or ur, which, in kindred 
tongues, changes into one of the vowels, and these vowels again into the lean shevae; 
thus, diupr deep, A.-S. deop, or deope. For the r the Gothic uses s, as the Latin 
arbos, honos, for arbor, honor ; thus Goth, diups deep ; A.-S. waeg, geard; Theotisc 
wee, karto ; Gothic wigs, gards, are in Icelandic vegr and gardr. 

25. These observations may account for the different opinions of 
philologers in determining the just relations of the Germanic tongues. 
The reducing them all to Gothic origin was an exuberant spring of error. 
The Gothic is not of such antiquity as to boast in being the mother of all 
Germanic tongues with which we became acquainted in a latter period. 
In the age of Ulphilas, it was a dialect of Germanic lineage, having other 
dialects by its side, as the Anglo-Saxon, which in the 4th century 
differed less from the Gothic than in the 9th century. It will be enough 
for my purpose to observe, that all critics do not agree in arranging the 
pedigree of the Gothic. The reason is evident. 

26. The Gothic or Moeso-Gothic is a language of transition or 
passage. If you consider the vowels of a word, you make it of Gothic 
origin : another, only looking at the consonants, will assert it has nothing 
to do with the Gothic. Some, only keeping in view grammatical forms, 
discover similarity of structure in the language of the Heliand ; while 
others, neglecting vowels, consonants, and grammatical forms, will only fix 
their attention on the etymological meaning of the word, and will find 
another filiation. 

It is evident that the A.-S. mot a coin,* as to the vowel, is nearer the Gothic mota 

* q. Tribute money, numisma census, vectigal. — J. B. 



Xliv FRIESIC ARRANGEMENT OF GOTHIC TONGUES. 

custom-house,* than Ger. ma.\it^ custom-house ; but, as to etymological sense, maut is 
nearer to the Gothic mota ; and though the word mota may be older and more 
complete than the A.-S. mot, the signification of coin was anterior to that of custom- 
house. In this case, the Icelandic and Friesic still mount a step higher than the 
Gothic, Anglo-Saxon, or German, e.g. the Icel. mota insculpo, typico, and mot 
typus; Frs. c. moet an impression, gives origin to the idea of a coin, as coin does of 
the house where the tax-money was gathered. — The Theotisc mahal concio, curia, 
agrees with the Moes. mathh forum, as to the vowel and signification, but the A.-S. 
me^el sermo as to the consonant « : we find also Moes. mathlei sermo, which agrees 
with A.-S. meSel, both in the consonants and the signification. — Feawa ^2^;, pauci, 
has the w of Moes. faiwai pauci, but the Theotisc fahefew, the vowel. If we consider 
the a in Icel. vaigifuriosus, it is nearer the Moes. wargjan damnare, than the A.-S. 
wergean to curse, maledicere, but in the signification the A.-S. draws nearer. Let 
us take an English example : the word abb the yarn on a weaver's warp. The w 
(pronounced nearly as Eng. v) being the aspiration of the lips, is often changed into 
h, the aspiration of the throat, as fahe, for fawai. The Moes. biwaibjan to surround, 
encompass, from waips a garland, sertum, A.-S. wefan to weave, Theotisc uueban, 
Grk. v<j)aEiv, from v4>£tv. The Scandinavians cast away both these aspirations in the 
perf. of eg vet I weave, saying v6f, vaf, and of, hence of tela in use by the Scandina- 
vians. In abb, then, the a is Icelandic, from vaf, and without the w in of texeham ; but 
the h changes into/ or remains a h, as in the Moes. and in the A.-S. web ; Frs. c. 
wob ; both e and o originating from a. 

27. From these few examples, it is evident that a word may have as 
many affinities as the points of view from which it may be observed. 
The Gothic was a tongue of transmigration, and all Germanic languages 
coming in contact with it in some point or other, it was very easily 
imagined to be the mother of the whole race. I may lastly add, on the 
ground of my own experience, that, having regard only to vowels and 
consonants, I cannot arrive at the common source of the Germanic tongues, 
as we trace back human kind to one common father in paradise. History 
begins too late to permit us to tface, with any satisfaction, even the first 
half of the period. Let us, therefore, not attempt what is impracticable ; 
but, keeping in mind the seniority of the class at the head of each column, 
let us range them all in one line, as dialects of the same language. 
Finding, 1st. the Anglo-Saxon older than the English, the Old Friesic 
than the Country Friesic, — 2ndly, the Moeso-Gothic older than the 
Swedish, — Srdly, the Theotisc or Alemannic older than the present 
German ; and considering how much of grammatical forms, in the present 
languages, time may have destroyed, as to the vowels and consonants, the 
languages must be classified in the following order: — 

* Telonium. 



FRIESIC. — TABLE OF GERMANIC LANGUAGES. 



xlv 



ANGLO-SAXON, 


MCESO-GOTHIC, 


THEOTISC. 


by the intermixing 


Old and Modern, 


[Language of Kero 


of Old Danish, Nor- 


Icelandic, 


of the .xxvi Hymns,^ 


man French, Latin, 


mixed with German, 


&c.] 


Greek, &c. is formed 


Saxon, &c. forms the 


High German, 


into 


present 


Bavarian, 


English, 


Swedish, 


Austrian, and 


Scottish, &c* 


Danish, Sfc. 


other dialects. 


Friesic, 


Saxon or Westphalian 


German, a mixture of 


at present divided 


language of the poem 


High -German and 


into 


Heliand,^ Low-Sax- 


some Saxon, [Low- 


Hindelopian, 


on.l 


German] as esta- 


Country Friesic, 


[ReineJce de Fos,\\ of 


blished by the ver- 


Schiermonnikogian, 


Henry van Alkmar, 


sion of the Bible by 


Saterlandic, 


Lubek, 1498.] 


Martin Luther, and 


North Friesic, 


From the Province 


since adopted as the 


[A small part of the 


of Overyssel, along 


general language 


Dutchy of Sleswickl 


the whole coast of 


through the whole 


All these dialects are 


the North - Sea to 


of Germany, a.d. 


more or less tainted 


Sleswick, the Baltic. 


1555.** 


by the languages of 


&c. 




the respective sur- 


Nertherlandish ICoren 




rounding people. 


van stat dervanBrues- 
5e/e,1229.§] Statutes 
of the town of Brus- 
sels. 

Dutch, now daily be- 
coming more defiled 
by Gallicisms and 
Germanisms. 





• See Jameison's opinion of the origin of the Scottish in Table I. § 19, p. viii. 

+ Heliand oder die altsachsische Evangelien-Harmonie. Herausgegeben von J.Andreas Schmeller, Monachii, 
sumptibus J. G. Cottae, 1830. The Cottonian MS. of the Heliand is of the 9th century. The MS. of Bamberg 
is a century later. With the Heliand compare Denkmdler, alter sprache und kunst von Dr. Dorow, I. 2nd and 
3rd part, Berlin, 1824, where are explained some admirable specimens of the dialect spoken between Munster 
and Paderborn in the 10th century. It is a list of the rents of the convent Freckahorst near Waxendorf. 

t Niedersdchsisch, Platt-deutch [Low-deutch] in German as opposed to High-deutch. See the history of these 
dialects in Geschichte der Nieder-sdchsischen sprache\on J. F. A. Kinderling, Magdeburg, 1800. 

\\- See VI. 13—18. 

§ First published in a treatise entitled Verhandeling over de Nederduytsche tael en Letterkunde opzigtelyk de 
zuydelyke provintien der Nederlanden door J. F. Willems, Antwerpen, 1819, torn i. p. 133. This piece being the 
oldest specimen of Netherlandish now extant, fully proves that the present Dutch is mere Brabandish, and that 
the strongly marked dialectic diversities of these two sisters were formed when the Netherlandish was cultivated 
in the seven United Provinces. The Netherlandish was called the Vlaemsche tael ; the Flemish tongue, la langiie 
Flamande, as long as the southern part of the Netherlands was the most flourishing, and Flanders the chief 
province. It was called Hollandish [Dutch] after the Spanish revolution, when the northern part was become 
a powerful republic, and the province of Holland a ruling province. To be a language or dialect, is often merely 
a question of predominant influence. See VI. 11, 20. 

% Hymnonim veteris ecclesiae XXVI. interpretatio Theotisca, ed. Jacobus Grimm, Gottingae, 1830. 

•* See X. 51. 

28. Considering the frame of the whole, I take no notice of the little 
interchanges between the columns — for instance, that the Friesic is nearer 
to the Icelandic than the Anglo-Saxon. All the three columns are 
considered as proceeding together, and developing themselves in succeed- 
ing ages with more or less facility.* An attempt shall subsequently be 
made to show the locality of the Germanic languages in a higher period, 
and how they developed themselves in advancing to the station of the 
Moeso-Gothic. 



* This hypothesis must be regulated by a due attention to the fact, that the first appear- 
ance of the Anglo-Saxon in the orbit of languages, is some centuries later than the Mceso- 
Gothic, which has, therefore, its phases more advanced than the Anglo-Saxon. This con- 
sideration is of common application. 



Xlvi FRIESIC MOST LIKE ANGLO-SAXON. 

29. It must be observed, that the monuments of Friesian literature are 
of a far more recent date than the Anglo-Saxon ; but the development of 
language does not always depend upon its age. The Friesians, encom- 
passed on the one side by the sea, and on the other by the Saxons, owe 
it to their greographical position that they have experienced no mutations 
but those of a Saxon origin, and in many respects homogeneous with 
their own language. I do not recollect any intermixture of a foreign 
language with the Friesian, except what was caused by the frequent 
inroads of Normans, and by the settlement of some bands of the same 
race among the Friesians. 

30. Add to this, that the language of the Friesians never felt the 
shock caused by migrations. From the time of Caesar to this very day, 
amongst the endless revolutions of nations, they have never changed their 
name or the place of their residence, and they are noted as an exception 
to the locomotive temper of the Germanic race.* 

31. These causes would render the language so stationary, that it would 
be less altered in the 12th century, than others in the 10th. In the 
following comparison, many instances will occur of true Anglo-Saxon 
sounds still flourishing in Friesland. What I consider still more impor- 
tant, the development of some vowels has produced now the same result 
as it did eight centuries ago — a convincing proof that the germ of both 
languages must be homogeneous. 

32. Discovering such striking features of likeness, after a separation 
of almost fourteen centuries, a complete separation by the ocean, by the 
adventures and the diversity of their means of subsistence, and of the land 
they occupied, I conclude, that at the time of their union, about the 
middle of the 5th century, the Anglo-Saxon was distinguished from the 
Friesic only by slight differences of dialect. We do not become acquainted 
with the A,-S. before the 8th or 9th century, and with the Friesian not 
before the 12th or 13th century, about four and eight hundred years after 
their separation. The series of evolutions each tongue has sustained, 
affords a full account of the chief discrepancies then existing. f 

33. As this whole matter can be proved by a strict comparision, we 
need not seek for authorities. 

If authority were wanted, that of Francis Junius would be amply sufficient. After 
a long scrutiny of the whole Germanic antiquity in regard to languages ; after the 
compilation of glossaries of almost every dialect of the race, unparalleled in labour and 
accuracy ; after a stay of two years [1652-1654] in those parts of Friesia noted as 
tenacious of their old manners and language, this scholar has always declared it as 
his opinion, that, of all the Germanic tongues, none approached so closely to the 
Anglo-Saxon as the Friesian. This decision wUl, I trust, outweigh all contrary 
opinions. As there are few in this century even deserving to march by the side of 
Junius, so I do not think any one can be vain enough to imagine he is superior. 

* Precis de la Geographic Universelle, par M. Malte-Bmn, Paris, 1810, vol. i. p. 314. 
t See § 14, 58, &c. 



NEIGHBOURS OF THE FRIESIANS. 



xlvii 



34. The geographical position of this people in question coincides with 
their philological pedigree. Let ns begin with the Goths, taking care 
that the epithet Moesian, coupled with their name, does not deceive the 
common reader. 

Some fragments of the Periplus of Pytheas, the renowned navigator from Marseilles, 
inform us, that he, being in search of the amber coasts in the Baltic, doubled the cape 
of Jutland, and sailed about 6,000 stadia along the coasts of the Guttones and 
Teutones, through the gulf Mentonomon [Kattegat, Belt, &c.] This was about 
325 years before the Christian era. The Guttones or Goths, seated in Jutland, 
descended afterwards to their brethren at the southern coast of the Baltic,* for the 
chief seat of the race was on the banks of the Vistula [Weichsel]. After a part 
was gone into Scandinavia, the great bulk moved thence to the banks of the Danube 
[Donau] in Dacia [Moldavia and Wallachia, about a.d. 180]. A part of the Goths, 
called West-Goths, pushed on by the Huns, retired, about a.d. 377, into Moesia 
[Servia and Bulgaria], and hence these Western- Goths obtained the name of Moeso- 
Goths. It was to this people that Ulphilas, the renowned translator of the Scriptures, 
was bishop. 

35. On the southern borders of the ancient Goths were seated the 
Angles, spreading southward perhaps to the banks of the Eider. The 
chief town of these people at a later date was Haddeby or Haithaby, 
A.-S. HseSe in Schleswig, or Sleswick. 

36. While the Angles filled nearly the whole of the Chersonesus Cim- 
bricuSj they were bordered on the west by another people of their kindred. 
These were the Friesians, whose posterity still live in the district of Bred- 
stedt near the coast of the sea, and whose dialect will afford some words 
for comparison. 

Hence the Friesians spread themselves in one uninterrupted line along the coast of 
the German sea to the mouth" of the Scheld;t though the extremities of this line were 
very distant from each other, and the people subdivided into sections denominated 
Brocmans, Segelterlanders, Rustrunger, Hunsingoer, and Emlander, each people ruling 
its own section by its own private statutes ; still they were one people, and spoke the 
same language, and ruled by the same common law, as a close examination of its 
Vetus jus Frisionum will prove. We remark that the Friesians lived close to the 
coast, as if allured by some magic attraction of the water; and, though when exigences 
required it, they sometimes extended into the interior parts, they never spread far in 
breadth, and even in their partial extension they soon relinquished their internal 



* See VII. § 1, &c. 

f The learned S. Turner cites six lines of Melis Stoke, in which the chronicler asserts that 
Lower Saxony has been confined by the Scheld. This accurate historian would not place any 
confidence in these words, if he had been acquainted with the following edition of the Rhymer: 
Rijmkronijk van Melis Stoke, met aanmerkingen door Balthazar Huydecoper, torn. iii. 8vo. Ley- 
den, 1772; i. p. 9. See Lex Frisionum edita et notis illustrata a Sibrando Siccama ; Franekeree, 
1617. — Van Wijn, bijvoegzels en aanmerkingen op de Faderl-Geschiedenis van Wagenaar, 
torn. i. — iv. p. 83 — 90. The same remark is of still more forcible application on a passage of 
Colijn, also cited by Mr. Turner. Colijnus is a supposititious child. History of the Anglo- 
Saxons, i. p. 328 and 150, London, 8vo. 1828. In the history of Friesia after the time of 
Charlemagne, those Friesians who governed by their own laws, and spoke Friesic, must be 
carefully distinguished from the surrounding people, who are also called Friesians because the 
political division of countries refers them to Friesia. The blending of these two races has 
been the source of endless errors in history. 



xlviii FillESlC LINE BROKEN. 

possessions. The historian, recollecting these facts, will not overlook the importance 
of the Friesians, though they only inhabited the borders of the continent, and the little 
islands by which the coast of the German ocean is covered. 

37. This Friesian line was early broken in two places by two mighty 
nations — one making its appearance from the continent, the other from the 
ocean. 

Between the Ems and the Weser were settled the Chauci Minores, and between 
the Weser and the Elbe the Chauci Majores. It is reported by Tacitus, that this 
immense extension of land, even from the borders of Hessia, was not only under the 
dominion, but was inhabited by the Chauci, but, he adds, they only kept some part of 
the strand, leaving the Friesians for the most part in their old possessions. The 
Chauci, entering into alKance with other people against the declining power of Rome, 
and assuming the name of Francs, left this country, and their name, being absorbed in 
that of the Francs, disappears from historic record. The Friesians availed themselves 
of this opportunity to occupy the vacated possessions of the Chauci, it not being 
unusual for a steady people like the Friesians to make use of the changes produced 
by the roving disposition of their neighbours to increase their own territory. 

38. Two descriptions of the Chauci are given by Tacitus. He first 
records some facts, and then, in the thirty-fifth chapter De Moribus 
Germanormn, he draws their portrait. 

In the record of the facts,* the Chauci appear cruel oppressors of the feeble, 
vindictive pirates, and to be prone to foreign military expedition, and also to make 
inroads on their neighbours. In delineating their character, f it is said that they wish 
to support their grandeur by justice, being free from covetousness, masters of them- 
selves, calm, modest, and retired. They never excite wars, nor harass their neigh- 
bours by predatory excursions or highway robbery. It is deemed the strongest proof 
of their bravery and might, that they act as superiors, and never pursue anything by 
injustice. Nevertheless, every one is ready to take up arms, and, in case of exigency, 
to unite in forming an army. They have plenty of men and horses, and their placitude 
detracts nothing from their valour. Had Tacitus first given this description, and 
afterwards recorded the facts, one might have supposed that he was misled through 
ignorance of the facts; but how he could contradict known facts related by himself, is 
hardly to be conceived. It must be clear to all who know the Friesians and their 
disposition, that the character ascribed to the Chauci agrees even in the least par- 
ticulars with that of the Friesians. Is it then impossible that Tacitus at a distant 
period, and mislead by later reports, should blend two neighbouring people together, 
and attribute to the Chauci what was alone applicable to the Friesians? 

39. The line of the Friesian tribes was broken again in a second place, 
to the north of the Elbe. 

The Saxons, occupying only some islands, such as Nordstrand, and some points on 
the continent to the westward and south of the Angles, and their western neighbours 
the strand Friesians, were in time so increased that they descended from their narrow 

« Taeiii Annales xi. 18, 19. Dion. Cass. ix. 30. Tac. Ann. xiii. 55. Didius Julianus re- 
stitit lis Belgicam aggi-edientibus, Spartianus in Did. Jul. I. 

f Taeiii Germania, cap. 36. It is said that he wrote liis Germania later than his Annales or 
History. Whether this be true or not, the facts and the description must apply to different 
people. 



FRIESIC POSITION OF THE GERMAN TRIBES. xlix 

abodes, and spread along the northern banks of the Elbe, and filled up the whole 
extent of country between this river and the land of the Angles.* This second 
breach, being near and enlarging that of the Chauci, was never entirely filled up 
again ; and where it was afterwards, either by the departure of the Chauci, or the 
expeditions of the Saxons, the bishops of Bremen and Hamburg determined, by their 
power and spiritual influence, to destroy the Friesic spirit of freedom, by subjugating 
the Friesians to their sway in government, religion, and language. 

40. Hence two divisions of Friesia originated at an early date : the 
southern part began at the mouth of the Weser, and terminated at the 
mouth of the Scheld ; the northern part from the west strand of Schleswig 
[Sleswick] , towards the mouth of the Elbe, much less than the southern 
part, and for this reason called Friesia Minor. In the 13th century, this 
small territory had power to raise for the king of Denmark an army of 
sixty thousand men.f 

41. The Moeso-Goths are traced to their first position in the northern 
parts of Chersonesus Cimbricus [Jutland, Denmark] ; the Angles in the 
narrower part and to the banks of the Eider; the Friesians extended on the 
sea-coasts by the side of the Angles to the mouth of the Elbe. We intend 
to place our philological comparison in the same order ; first the Gothic, 
then the Anglo-Saxon, and finally the Friesic. 

42. It must not be overlooked, that the geographical position of the 
whole Germanic race coincides with the arrangement of the preceding 
table of their languages. Going from the Baltic to the Netherlands, you 
pass through the original seats of the Icelandic, Moeso-Gothic, West- 
phalian, Netherlandish; on the left you find the Angles and Friesians; 
and on the right you have the Alemannic or Theotisc race.J 

43. This position may, perhaps, aflford some idea of the order in 
which the respective tribes marched from the orient to the west of 
Europe. 

The foremost were the Anglo-Friesic race, who, being pushed forward by following 
tribes, did not halt till they arrived on the shore of the German ocean. The Goths 
with their attendants followed, and the train of the Germani was closed by the 
Theotisc race. The coast of the German ocean, along which the Anglo-Friesic race 
was forced to spread itself, was the basis of the direction in which the two following 
races took their position, and were placed nearly in three parallels from north-east 
to south-west. These parallels are crossed and disturbed in a thousand ways by 
migrations and wars, but their general direction manifests itself to this very day in 
the remnants of the respective old languages. 

44. The adventurers who subdued Britain are called Anglo-Saxons ; 
but here an important question arises — what is implied in this name? 
First, it is to be observed, that this people never called themselves Anglo- 



* As the Saxons were unknown to Tacitus, the irruption of the Chauci was, of course, 
anterior to that of the Saxons. 

f *' Imperator Otto, Holsatiam sibi .subigere volebat, contra quern venit rex Waldemarus 
cum exercitu copioso, habens secum de soils Frisionibus sexaginta millia hominum." — Ericus 
Rex,adann. 1215. + § 27. 

h 



1 FRIESIC THE SAXONS POWERFUL. 

Saxons; but this name is given them by historians. Paulus Diaconus 
called i\iQm Angli-Saxones ;* Codoaldus, rex AnglonumSaxonum ;f 
and, inverting the construction of the words, he says, Hermelinda ex 
Saxonum-Anglorum genere.X They did not call themselves by these 
compound names, but indiscriminately, Angles or Saxons. Anglorum, 
sive Saxonum gens.\\ The case seems to me as follows. 

45. After the Goths had evacuated the Chersonesus Cimbricus, and 
left only their name to the country, colonies of the neighbouring Angles 
succeeded in their place, and assumed the name of the Country Geatas, 
Eotas, Ytas. 

The Scandinavians, and more particularly the Danes, were quite distinct from 
these Juths,§ being their mortal enemies, and being distinguished from them by some 
strong features in the respective languages. Neither did the Danes originally possess 
any part of the Chersonesus Cimbricus, unless it was the very northern point. In 
later ages they succeeded in gradually subduing the population of the Chersonesus, 
and mingling their language with that of the innates ; but this very mixture proves 
by its ingredients, now visible, that nearly the whole peninsula was before populated 
by a race different to the Danes, and similar to the Angles. The definite article the, 
both in Danish and Icelandic, is placed after the noun and made to coalesce with it, 
while in the Anglo-Saxon and the kindred tongues it is always set before the noun : 
thus A.-S. seo straet the street ; Icel. straetit ; ^.-aS^. se strand the strand; Icel. strondin ; 
A.-S. se man the man ; Dan. manden, gen. mandens of the man.^ This peculiarity 
of the Danish idiom is not to be found in the dialect of the Jutes, however Danish it 
may be. If you draw a line from Skanderburg to Wiburg, and to the gulph of Liim, 
what lies south and west of this line, Thysted not excepted, retains still the remains 
of its Anglo-Saxon, or rather its antiscandinavian origin.** 

46. The combined power of the Angles and Jutes was easily overcome 
by that of their southern neighbours; for such was the number, the 
power, and the extent of the Saxons along and above the northern banks 
of the Elbe, that all the surrounding people, whether Friesians, Angles, 
or Jutes, were considered by foreigners as subdivisions of the Saxons; 
even what was effected by a union of all these tribes, was often ascribed 
to the Saxons alone. 

It is likely that the Saxons were the most prominent, and therefore attracted the 
greatest attention from southern scholars, while the Friesians, Angles, and Jutes 
were less observed on the strand or the inner part of the peninsula. It is known, 
from their geographical position, that the Angles constituted a part, and being the 
chief actors, probably a great part of the migrating allies ; so that, on their departure, 
their native soil was left nearly destitute of inhabitants. jf The Angles, however, 
were considered a subdivision of the more powerful Saxons, and took a share in their 

• De gestis Longobard. iv. 23. f Id. vi. 15. J Id. v. 37. Bede, i. 15. 

§ " Guti cum veniunt suscipi debent, et protegi in regno isto sicut conjurati fratres, sicut 
propinqui et proprii cives regni hujus. Exierunt enim quondam de nobili sanguine Anglo- 
rum, scilicet de Engra civitate, et Anglici de sanguine illorum, et semper efficiuntur populus 
unus et gens una." — Leges Edwardi, Wilkins, p. 206. 

t See II. § 1. 

** See this position defended by a Danish gentleman, Dr. C. Paulsen, in the Nordisk 
Review, No. I. p. 261, Copenhagen, 1833. 

ft See III. § 5,6. 



FRIESIC — WHO WERE THE ANGLO-SAXONS. li 

expedition : this union is correctly expressed in the denomination Anglo-Saxons. 
For, whether this word be considered as German or Latin, the first part denotes the 
species, and the second the genus, and the whole implies the tribe of the Angles 
belonging to the Saxon confederacy. The Angles bore the chief and leading part in 
the expedition to Britain, though considered as only a part of the Saxon confederacy, 
and therefore denominated Anglo-Saxon.* Time has done justice to the Angles ; 
for while the name of Saxons has either completely disappeared, or has only a faint 
vestige in such words as Essex, {East- Saxons, ") Middlesex, &c., the name of the 
Angles is still embodied in England and Englishmen, and is in full vigour and known 
from pole to pole ; nor will it ever die, unless the declining empires of Germanic 
race should be washed away by a flood of barbarians, as the Roman empire was by 
the Germanic. 

47. It has already been shown that Anglo-Saxon is a word formed by 
old Latin authors, and not by the Saxons themselves. Independently of 
historical proof, the foreign descent of the word is proved by its for- 
mation. 

Thus we say, in the Latin form, Anglo- Saxones, Hiberno-Anglus, Polono-Russus, 
whether we take Anglo, Hiberno, Polono, for substantives or adverbs ; but in expres- 
sing these words in the Germanic tongues, we should say English Saxon, Polish 
Russian ; in German, Englischer Sachse, Russischer Pole. Thus the Dutch poet 
Maerlant, Dus werden heren dingelsche sassen. Thus the English Saxons turned 
rulers, (iii. 29.) This Germanic form is verbally translated by Paulus Diaconus, (iv.l5,) 
Angli- Saxones. 

48. It is often stated that the word Seaxan Saxons is derived from 
seax a sword; in East Friesia, saeghs a little sabre. 

If this be true, there is some reason for the supposition that the kindred nations 
derived their names from the weapon which they chiefly used. Thus, Franc, from 
franca a javelin ; German, from gar jaculum ; Dut. Kil. gheer fuscina ; and man 
a man, that is, a dart man. Angle the Angles, from angel aculeus hamatus. The word 
seax is nothing else but Moes. ahs spica; Sans, ^frr asc a sword, ensis ; A.-S. 

aechir, ear an ear ; aex, eax an axe, an instrument consisting of a metal head with 
a sharp edge, preceded by the sibilant s; and perhaps gar is the same word as (ar) 
ear ; Dut. aar, air, aer arista, preceded by the guttural g ; Dut. Kil. anghel an ear 
or spike of corn — all proving the idea of something pointed. The word franca is seen 
in Ger. fram, properly the sharp end of an instrument, the beginning of any thing, and 
hence the preposition from, agreeing in signification with the Moes. fram. Fram 
fruma, {Moes. Jn. 15, 27,) is on that account properly the edge, commencement of the 
beginning, that is, from the beginning. Is it not also possible that the Brondingas, 
{Beo. K. p. 37, 11,) are so called from Icel. brandr lamina ensis. 

49. In the comparison of languages, care should be taken not to be 
mislead by mere names. The Saxons increased so much in power, as to 
dare to oppose the hosts of Charlemagne, and at last they occupied an 
immense territory about the Elbe and the Weser, which, after their name, 
was called Saxony. This Saxony was subsequently occupied by other 

♦ It is remarkable that king Ine, who commenced his reign in a.d. 700, calls himself, at the 
beginning of his laws, a West-Saxon. Ic Ine, mid Godes gyfe West-Seaxana cyning, / Ine, by 
God's grace king of the West-Saxons. But the people of his kingdom he denominates English- 
men. Gif wite-)5eow Englisc mon bine forstalige, if an Englishman condemned to slavery steal. 
In. 24. Gif Enghsc mon steals, if an Englishman steal, In. 46 : 54: 74. An Englishman, in 
all the paragraphs, is opposed to Wealh a Welshman. 



lii FRiEsic — Johnson's dictionary. 

tribes, whose system of vowels approached to that of the Theotisc race, 
and therefore differed very much from the Anglo-Saxon sounds. These 
tribes, taking the name of Saxons from the country they inhabited, their 
language is also called Saxon. I need not remark, that we can neither 
compare Anglo-Saxon nor the English to this Saxon as their nearest 
relative, if the mistakes of the most celebrated philologists did not render 
it necessary.* 

Dr. Johnson did not regard this rule, and therefore he often compares English 
words with the most remote German. " After cat you first find Teuton katz (read 
katze), then French chat, and afterwards A.-S. cat; while A.-S. cat, Frs. and Dut. 
kat, being the proper form of the word, ought to have stood first." Some hundred 
examples of this sort, and worse, may be quoted from this celebrated lexicographer : 
his errors, instead of being removed by his editor, Mr. Todd, are in this respect, and 
some others, increased : added to this, that many words are not to be found in the 
languages referred to. In the article hay, the Icel. hey is also said to be Dut., while 
the Dut. word is hooi; and thus in almost every page. An impartial judge, con- 
sidering the medley of materials, the blunders, the negligence or typographical errors 
occurring in deducing words from their originals, will conclude, that the etymological 
part of Johnson's Dictionary, even in the edition of 1827, is not deserving of the expense 
and the labour bestowed upon it, and is quite unworthy of the nation of whose 
language it is the chief interpreter, if not the uncontrolled lawgiver. The English 
etymologist will only meet with the proper forms of its words by consulting the 
nearest relatives of the English language. We may illustrate this by the preceding 
example of hay. Here we find the same change of ^ to y in the Country Friesian as 
in the English — a change which is not to be found so often in any other Germanic 
tongue. A.-S. heg, in Frs. c. is hea ; but haye (Italian a) to make hay, agrees 
with hay, having both a, as Moes. hawi. So also A.-S. maeg potest, daeg dies, weg 
via, caeg clavis, were changed into may, day, way, hey, of which the Englishman will 
scarcely discover instances, unless he goes to his nearest kinsmen the Friesians, 
Frs. c. mei, dei, wei, kai, (Italian a).\ 

50. It may be asked whether, when the Anglo-Saxons left their native 
soil, any of the neighbouring Friesians accompanied them, and whether 
any intercourse was subsequently maintained between the separated 
brethren ? :|: 

* It has already been observed, (§ 22,) that the question is not whether a word exists in one 
of the Germanic languages, which is generally the case, but whether the proper form of the 
w^ord is to be found in the nearest kindred dialect. When we cannot discover it in this dia- 
lect, then only we may apply to languages of more remote relationship. The question, for 
instance, is not whether the word cat exists in other Germanic tongues, but whether it is 
found in A.-S., Frs. or Dut. 

t There is another class of Germanic words introduced in this century, or the two pre- 
ceding, and making no part of the original frame of the language. The correct derivation of 
these words depends more upon an extensive knowledge of many thousand terms in modern 
tongues, than upon analogical acuteness : I should wish to bestow more praise upon this part 
of Johnson's Dictionary, but it is not better than the other. One example will be sufficient. 
What can be more simple than the derivation of the word tattoe, the beat of a drum 
warning soldiers to their quarters, from the Dut. taptoo, id. properly signifying tapping shut, the 
taps or ginshops shut from the soldiers ? Even in the last edition of Johnson, by Todd, it is 
derived from Fr. tapotez tous. 

X The old Chroniclers are at a loss whether to make Hengist a Friesian or a Saxon. 
Maerlant speaks of him thus . 

Een hiet Engistus een vriese, een sas, 

Die vten lande verdreuen was ; 

One was named [J.-S. het] Engist, a Friesian or a Saxon, 

W^ho was driven away out of his land. — Spiegel Historial.c: xv. p. 16. 



FRIESIANS ACCOMPANIED THE SAXONS. Illl 

Upon which I would remark, that the faces of the Anglo-Saxon and the Friesic 
languages would have the more marked and decided likeness to each other, when the 
separation was the most complete. If a continued intercourse between the Friesians 
on the continent, and the Anglo-Saxons in Britain, had been maintained, the Anglo- 
Saxon would have been supplied with Friesian ingredients of a later date, in such 
a way as languages not otherwise homogeneous may form a distant similitude ; but 
when there are innumerable resemblances between Anglo-Saxon and the Friesian 
of this very day, originating in the latter part of the 5th century, without being 
increased by a subsequent intercourse, it is a proof that this striking similitude must 
have been laid in the basis of the languages. I feel much inclined to think that this 
is the truth, while I allow that many of the neighbouring Friesians accompanied the 
Anglo-Saxons in their expedition. 

51. It is true that the Friesian is noted for his tenacity to his native 
soil. His residence about the mouths of the Ems and the Rhine for 
centuries before our era, in the midst of a wandering people, is a sufficient 
proof of this character. 

The Friesians on the confines of the Angles were not of such quiet and sedentary 
habits as those on the Ems and the Rhine. They acquired the restless habits of their 
neighbours. Suppose then a portion of the Saxons, many thousand Jutes, and nearly 
all the Angles, leaving their country for glory and riches ; would it not be a miracle, if 
the Friesians in the neighbourhood of the moving tribes were alone insensible of the 
general impulse ? This is on the supposition that the movement was voluntary ; but, 
considering the subsequent emigration of the Cimbrians, the Goths, and Angles, from 
the same peninsula, I cannot help retaining the supposition, that some cause, now 
unknown, might operate to produce these migrations. This cause, whether famine,* 
or inroads from the Scandinavians, being general, would have the same influence upon 
the Friesians as upon their neighbours. 

52. I am aware that inquiry will be made, why Bede, in enumerating 
the tribes who peopled Britain, omitted the Friesians. f 

As well may we inquire why Procopius omits the Saxons, and names the 
Friesians. Bede was born about a.d. 673, and died in 735. Though he was well 

Thus again : 

Engistus wart dus outeert 

Ende is in Vrieseland gekeert. 

Engist was thus disgraced. 

And is into Friesia returned. — torn. iii. p. 29. 
The Chronicle of Maerlant is founded upon the Speculum Historiale of Monk Vincentius, 
who wrote about a. d. 1245. 

* Nennius says, that the first settlers arrived in three vessels, and that Hengist and Horsa 
were exiles : this intimates some internal combustion in Gothland. In those nations averse to 
the sedentary occupation of agriculture, famine was always the most efiicient and general 
cause of emigration. This was at least the case with the Scandinavians, who, pressed by 
dearth, determined by lot who should emigrate. It is likely that the Scandinavians fell upon 
the Jutes, who, being settled in the corner of the peninsula, were the first prey of the hungry 
invaders. The Jutes fell upon Britain, and were the first Saxon settlers in Kent and Wight. The 
Scandinavians then descended further to the south on the Angles and Saxons, and induced 
the tribes to comply with the request of Hengist and other leaders to come to Britain. The 
northern pirates, still descending further, ravaged the whole coast of the German sea : the 
Friesians were, therefore, the never-ceasing objects of their piratical incursions. In still 
later times they settled in France, and ultimately reached the descendants of the same tribes 
of the Anglo-Saxons, who, in the two preceding centuries, were exiled from their native soil. 
See on this subject, Normannernes sotoge og deres nedseetielse i Frankerig Historik Fremstillet af 
G. B. Depphig med adskillige forandringer oversat af N. M. Petersen Kobenhavn, 1830, p. 57, et seq. 
t Bede i. 15. 



liv FRIESIC PROPER NAMES LIKE A.-S. 

acquainted with the affairs of England in his time, he never left his native land. 
Procopius was a Greek of Caesarea, and after the year 535 the secretary of 
Belisarius, the companion of his general in his expeditions against the Vandals and 
Goths, and of course well acquainted with the general circumstances and relations of 
the Germanic tribes. He was also two hundred years nearer the Saxon expedition to 
Britain than Bede. This Procopius states in his fourth book on the Gothic war, 
that Britain was peopled by three nations, the Britons, the Angles, and the Friesians, 
AyyiXoi Kai $,oio-aroi/£s. Could Procopius be mistaken or mislead in an historical fact 
of such notoriety as the overthrow of an important island by swarms from the 
continent, an event in which the political interests of his master Justinian, as to the 
influence of its example, were highly concerned ? It was to Proco{iius a compara- 
tively recent event, happening about 449, and therefore only about a hundred years 
before he wrote his history. If he were mislead, how is it that he does not mention 
some nation of wider fame, and is satisfied to select the Angles and the remote tribe 
of the Friesians to be the inhabitants of Britain ? 

53. I cannot omit to mention, that the leaders of the Anglo-Saxons bear 
names which are now in use by the Friesians, though by time a little 
altered or abbreviated. 

They have ^or^se, Hengst,* Witte, Wiggele, Eske, Tsjisse, Tsjerk, Ealse, Hessel ; 
for A.-S. Horsa, Hengest, Witta, Wihtgil, Chr. Ing. p. 15 ; Msc. Cissa, Chr. Ing. 
p. 16 ; Cerdic, Elesa, Chr. Ing. p. 17. Also Lense, Timen, JSlle, for A.-S. Wlencing, 
Cymen, iSlle, llcel. at ellda ignem facere ; A.-S. ellen virtus, rohur,'\ Chr. Ing. 16 ; 
Ine, Ide, Offe, for A.-S. Ine, Ide, Offa. There are indeed but few A.-S. names 
which may not be found in use with the present Friesians. 

54. The story of Geoffrey of Monmouth about Vortigern and Rouin, 
or Roiven, daughter of Hengist, is known. She welcomed him with, 
*^ Lauerd king, wacht heil," Lord king, wait for my hailing draught. 
He, by the help of an interpreter, answered, " Drinc heil," Drink hail 
to me.f 

I intend not to discuss the verity of the history, but only to allude to the cere- 
mony which was observed. The Friesian Chronicles represent Rowen as drinking 
the whole, in compliance with the royal command, " Drink hail ! " and then taking 
the right hand of the king in hers and kissing him, while she offered him the cup 
with her left hand. This is quite a Friesian custom.J The female is not named 
Rouin by the Friesian Chronicle, as the text of Geoffrey badly states, but Ronixa, 
a name still in use with us, though, by an analogical permutation of consonants, it is 
written Reonts. 

• See § 50, note %. 

f Galfredi Monumetensis Historia Regum Britanniae, iv. 12. 

X Est praeterea et alia quam pro lege vel quasi observant (Frisii) ut videlicet quoties alicui 
patheram vel poculum vino, vel cerevisia plenum propinant, turn dicunt sua materna lingua, 
Het gilt, ele frye Frieze! \_It concerns thy hail, Ofree Friesian ,'1 et non tradunt patheram sive 
poculum, nisi datis dexteris, cujuscumque etiara conditionis, aut sexus fuerunt, quique turn 
accipientes praedictum poculum respondent eadem lingua, " Fare wal, ele frye Frieze ! {Fare- 
well, Ofree Friesians!'] Etsi personae dissimiles fuerint, aut utraeque feminei sexus nihilominus 
addito osculo idem ^er&ciunt ; quem etiam morem in hunc usque diem Frisii pertinaciter 
retentum observant. — De orig. situ, qualit. et quant. Frisice, M. Corn. Kempio authore, Coloniee 
Agr. 1588. 

" Respondens deinde Vortegirnus, Drinc heil jussit puellam potare, cepitque de manu ipsius 
scyphum et osculatus est earn et potavit." — Galfredus Monum, vi. 12. The maiden's taking 
hold of the king's hand and kissing him, is reported by Winsemius Frieschi Historien, p. 43, 
and others, who may be compared with Geoffrey of Monmouth. See Junii Etymol. Anglic, in 
voce Wait. 



iE :s::'%n5Si£CSEiii^T«\SK& " 



FRIESIC — STATE OF ANGLO-SAXON MSS. Iv 

55. Whatever may be the truth of the story, it is most certain that 
" Wacht hail" is changed into Wassail ; that wassail-cup is sometimes 
used at feasts and on New-year's day in England ; and that its origin is 
traced back to the supposed meeting of Vortigern and Ronixa. 

What has particularly struck me is, that the figure of the old English wassail-bowl 
is exactly the same as the silver cups in which, at weddings, the Friesians offer to the 
guests brandy with raisins, [spict/ wassel-bowl]. This cup passes from the married 
couple to their guests on their left-hand, and from them to their left-hand neighbour, 
as in the corporation festivals in England. The liquor is called in the Friesian 
tongue, " breid's trienetf' bride's tears, alluding to her reluctant willingness to enter 
into wedlock. 

56. I will only add that the Danes were the common enemies of the 
Friesians and Angles, and as much opposed by national hatred, as the 
Friesians and Angles were united by the ties of national sympathy. 

The Saxon Chronicle records, in the year a. d. 897, that the Friesians and Angles 
fought under the command of king Alfred against the Danes, who were defeated near 
Exmouth, Devonshire. The Friesians were of some repute, or the names of three of 
them would not have been preserved from oblivion in this record : iEbbe, Frs. c. 
Ebbe ; iE<Selere, Frs. c. Eldert ; Wulfheard, Frs. c. Olfert. Were these Friesians 
the allies of Alfred, recently come to his assistance from the banks of the Elbe or 
Rhine, or his subjects settled in England? 

Before entering upon the comparison of the Friesic with the Anglo- 
Saxon, it will be necessary to form accurate ideas about the state in which 
the Anglo-Saxon language has reached our time. 

57. One common fate accompanied all the MSS. of the middle ages, 
that the text was modernised, and therefore spoiled when copied by 
a person who spoke the same language, and nothing but the ignorance of 
the scribe could give security from this perversion. Not understanding 
the MS. he was compelled to copy literally, and his errors, whether 
arising from inadvertence or the indistinctness of the old letters, are easily 
rectified by the critic. The fact is, that the copyist, considering the words 
only as a vehicle of the sense, did not care about the language. Every 
scribe, therefore, changed the language of his MS. into the dialect of his 
own time and dwelling-place. 

In this way the Roman du Menard* which can be traced to the time between the 
first and second crusade, is come down to us in the language of the 13th century, 

A.D. 1288, 1290, 1292. It is on this account that Mr. Roberts observes " Avant 

r invention de 1' imprimevie le style ne conduit qu' imparfaitement a reconnoitre la 

* Le Roman du Renart public, par M. D. M. Meon, Paris, 1826. This poem was the basis of 
a poem in the language of Flanders, van den Vos Reynaerde, a. d. 1404. This was followed 
by the Dutch Renard in prose, Gouda, 1479, and this again by the renowned Reincke de Vos of 
Henri van Alkmar, Lubek, 1498, the parent of all later European versions. Caxton's folio 
edition of 1481, was a translation of the work published at Gouda. To the researches of 
recent scholars, we owe Reinardus Vulpes, carmen epicum seculis ix. et xii. conscriptum : ad 
fidem codd. MSS. ed. et annotationibus illustravit, Fr. Jas. Mone, editio princeps, 8vo. pp. 336. 
It is proved by comparison, that this Latin poem has given rise to the very Roman du Renart, 
published by Mr, Meon, and also that the author was an inhabitant of the Belgic Netherlands, 
to the localities of which, allusion is often made. See VI. § 13 — 17. 



Ivi FRIKSIC — MSS. OF CiEDMON. 

difference des temps. Les copistes ne se bornoient pas a transcrire ; ils corrigeoient 
r ortographe substituoient des vers nouveaux a ceux qu' ils avoient sous les yeux, et 
des expressions nouvelles a celles qui tomboient si rapidement en desuetude. La 
langue, qui changeoit d' un joura 1' autre devoit les engager a multiplier ces alterations 
que le peu de severite de 1' art poetique rendoit alors si faciles."* The scribe, how- 
ever, found some restraint in the alliteration, which was observed by Csedmon and 
other poets. In those MSS. where there was little except the rhyme to indicate the 
mechanism of the verses, or where the MS. was in prose, the scribe had more liberty 
to change. This was the fate of the oldest Dutch poet, Maerlant. Some leaves of 
parchment containing fragments of his Spiegel Historial, much older than the MS. 
from which the edition of 1785 was printed, aiFord conclusive evidence, that neither 
the construction of the words, nor the manner of spelling in the MS. used in printing 
this edition, was that of Maerlant himself. Therefore, the question about language 
during the middle ages, is reduced to the question of the time and place of the MS. 

58. The same fate attended the most ancient pieces of Anglo-Saxon 
poetry, not to speak of prose. Let me exemplify my assertions by the 
poems of Caedmon. The MS. of the Caedmon on which Mr. Tliorpef 
founds his text, is apparently of the 10th century, and it strictly ex- 
presses the language of that period. Gaedmon, the author of the poem, 
died about a.d. 680. He was first a cowherd at Whitby, and afterwards 
became a monk. Would it not be a little strange to assert, that a man 
brought up in his station of life, especially in the uncivilized northern 
parts of England, and in the 7th century, has spoken the same dialect 
as the far more civilized inhabitants of southern England two centuries 
later ? This too in an age, when some parts of England ^had as little 
communication with each other, as with foreign countries. In this case, 
Anglo-Saxon would be an exception in the history of languages ; it would 
be without dialect, time, and place, having produced no change in its 
forms. How far an assertion of this sort is distant from truth, is proved 
by the oldest remnant of Anglo-Saxon poetry now extant, compared with 
its appearance two and three centuries later. In a codex referred by 
Wanley to a.d. 737, J we read a few lines of Caedmon which are translated 
into Latin by Bede,§ and we have the same lines as they are modernized 
by Alfred in his Anglo-Saxon version of Bede, about two hundred 
years after Caedmon. Let us compare these two specimens with each 
other : — 



* Fables inedites des xii., xiii., et xiv. siecles, par A. C. M. Robert, Paris, 1825, 
p. cxxii. 

t Cadmon's Metrical Paraphrase in Anglo-Saxon, with an English translation, notes, and a 
verbal index, by Benjamin Thorpe, London, 1832. 

X ** Hisce pene omnibus in a.d. 737, concurrentibus, verisimile mihi videtur hunc ipsum 
codicem eodem anno, Ceolwlfo adhuc regnante, seu saltern ante Eadberhti inaugurationem, 
duobus quoque annis post Bedse obitum, in Wiremuthensi monasterio fuisse scriptum."— 
Wanley, p. 288. 

§ Bede, lib. iv. cap. 24. 



FRIESIC — EARLIEST SPECIMEN OF A.-S. 



Ivii 



CtBdmon died A. T>. 680: this About a.d. 885, bi/ King 



MS. is of A. Ji.7S7. 
Cod. MSS. Epis. Norwi- 
censis* Wanley, p. 287. 
Nu scylun hergan 
hefaen ricaes uard 



metudaes mascti* 
end his mod gidanc 
uerc uuldur fadur 
sue he uundra gihuaes 
eci drictin ^ 
or astelidae. 
He aerisf^ scop 
elda bamum 
heben til hrofe 
haleg scepen 
tha** middun geard 
mon cynnaes uard 
eci dryctin 
sefter tiadas 
firum foldue 
frea allmectig. 



Alfred. 
MS. C.C.C. Oxon. 
Thorpe Pref. Ccedm. xxii. 
Nu we sceolan herian/ 
heofon-rices weard. 

metodes mihte. 
and his mod-gel'onc.^ 
wera'' wuldor-foeder. 
swa he wundrai gehwaes. 
ece dryhtenJ 
oord'' onstealde'. 
he aerest gesceop." 
eor^an bearnum. 
heofon to hrofe." 
hahg scyppend. 
)3a middan geard. 
mon cynnes weard. 
ece dryhten.o 
aefter teode. 
firum foldan. 
frea aelmihtig. 



Literal English Version. 

Now must we praise 

the guardian of heaven's 

kingdom, 
the creator's might, 
and his mind's thought, 
glorious Father of men ! 
as of every wonder he, 
Lord eternal, 
formed the beginning. 
He first framed 
for the children of earth 
the heavens as a roof ; 
holy Creator ! 
then mid-earth, 
the guardian of mankind, 
the eternal Lord, 
afterwards produced ; 
the earth for men, 
Lord Almighty ! 



Prima cantavit Ccedmon istud carmen. 



^ maecti. 
^ abest. 
■ rofe. 



b dryctin. 
» wuldres. 
o drihtne. 



<= aerist <* jja, « fold." ^ herigean 
j drihten. ^ ord. ^ astealde B. ^-- 

Various readings in Smith's edition of Bede, 597, 20 



^ gejjanc. 
gescop. 



Whether the reference of the MS. Episc. Norwicensis to the precise year, a.d. 737, 
be correct or not, every one will agree with Wanley, that it is far before the age of 
Alfred, t and is by no means a re-translation of the Latin words of Bede. King Alfred 
strictly follows the lines and the words of the MS. Episc. Norwicensis. The obser- 
vation of Bede,t that he followed the sense of Ccedmon, and not the construction of 
his words, applies particularly to the latter part of the MS. Episc. Norwicensis, 
and is an additional proof that Bede found his original almost in the same form as it is 
presented to us in MS. Episc. Norwicensis. Alfred seems convinced that he had the 
true song of Caedmon before him, as in his Anglo-Saxon translation, he not only 
omits Bede's remark about giving merely the sense, and not the same collocation of 
words, but immediately before the insertion of this Anglo-Saxon song, he asserts, 
" )?ara endebyrdnes Hs is" the order of which is this.% 

* Codex MS. omnium vetustissimus non ita pridem erat penes egregium ilium literarum 
fautorem Joannem Morum Episcopum nuper Elienscm, hodieque in Bibliotheca Regia, Cunta- 
brigice asservatur, Smith's Bede, Cantabrigice, folio, 1722, Pref. p. 3. The MS. named by 
Wanley in note [J p. Ivi.] described in his Catalogue as Cod. MSS. Episcopi Norwicensis, p. 288, is 
the same as that mentioned by Smith in this note. Dr. John Moore was bishop of Norwich when 
Wanley made his Catalogue ; he was afterwards bishop of Ely ; after his death, king George 
the First purchased this MS. with the Doctor's library, which he presented to the University 
of Cambridge, where the MS. is now preserved in the Public Library.— J. B. 

f Ego iterum publicandum censeo, tanquam omnium quae in nostra Lingua etiamnum 
extent monumentorum pene vetustissimum. — Wanley, p. 287. 

X Hie est sensus, non autem ordo ipse verborum quae dormiens ille canebat ; neque enim 
possunt carmina, quamvis optime composita, ex alia in aliam linguam, ad verbum, sine detri- 
mento sui decoris ac dignitatis transferri. — Bede 4, 24; Sm. p. 171, 10. 

§ Bede Sm. p. 597, 19, and just afterwards, 1. 26, adds, "And Jjam wordumsnna monio"word 
in jjaet ylce gemet, Gode wyrcSes songes togejjeodde," and to those words soon joined manrj words 

of song worthy of God, IN THE SAME MEASURE.— J. B. 



IVlll FRIESIC — CHANGES IN ANGLO-SAXON. 

59. Having here the same words written in different ages, it is my 
intention to notice the discrepancies, that the changes the language under- 
went in the interval may be clearly seen. 

60. In the MS. Episc. Norwicensis, we find no characters for \) and p, the one 
being designated by u, the other by d, as in gidanc, or by th, as in tha for l^a. In the 
same MS. casula is translated hearth for hear<S. Hence may it not be inferred, that 
the \> and p were introduced later than the date of the MS. ? Or was the \) a letter of 
the heathen Runic alphabet, and for that reason was not admitted amongst the letters 
of the holy Roman church ? 

61. The ce is divided into its compounds a and e, as in hefaen, ricaes, in which a 
long a seems to be implied. Mr. Thorpe, in his second edition, p. 22, follows neither 
Wanley nor Smith, having hefasn, metudaes, for hefaen, metudaes ; but in this, Smith 
also differs from Wanley, who puts maecti for Smith's maecti. 

62. The c, when it had the sound of ch was not yet changed into h, as in maecti, 
drictin; but in later times became mihte, dryhten. 

63. We find here two forms of heaven, the one written with b, and the other with 
f, hefaen ricaes and heben ;* and in the Vetus Jus Frisicum, which is about four 

centuries older than the oldest laws written in Friesic, we have (Tit. iii.) thivbda for 
thiaftha, when the inscription is not from the hand of any Francic-Theotisc lawyer 
under Charlemagne. 

64. The resolving of a into cb was not yet accomplished, we have fadur for faeder ; 
Frs.feder, Aeg. bk, 2, Ch. I. 389, 475, 612, contracted, Frs. h. feer. 

65. The g in the termination of the infinitive had not yet undergone any change ; 
hergan celebrare was changed by Alfred into herian, and to supply the hiatus, replaced 
the g, and changed a into ea, making herigean. 

66. The a was already changed into e, where the more modern A.-S. still retains 
the a, as in end, sue, scepen, for and, swa, scapen. This was, perhaps, something 
peculiar to the Northumbrian dialect, agreeing with the Friesic in scepene clather 
made clothes, {Asg. bk. 84), but not in and and, (Asg. bk. 1) ; nor in Old Frs. and 
Frs. V, sa thus. Later in the Frs. I. we find ende like the above. They probably 
pronounced the words thus, eand, suea, sceapen. 

67. The a changed into e was not yet gone into i, as mectig, but at a later period 
mihtig ; with ce, as in maecti later mihte. Heliand has helag holy, MS. Episc. Nor- 
wicensis haleg, not yet halig ; on the contrary, Heliand mahtig, and of course MS. 
Episc. Norwicensis mectig. It further appears, from the exchange of e for ce, that ce 
had nearly the sound of e, and of course like the Fr. ai. In terminations we find 
also ce used for e. 

68. The vowel has undergone a different change in the enclytic gi. Moes. ga 
produces the usual A.-S. ge, when pronounced broad and like a diphthong, ge becomes 
gi ; as, gidanc, gihuaes, for gel^onc, gehwaes. 

69. The vowel in the terminations of words and in all syllables unaccented, is 
sounded as indistinctly as the short e or Heb. sheva [ : ]. It is a proof that a 
dialect has some antiquity, when these unaccented syllables have not entirely lost a 
distinguishing feature. The MS. Episc. Norwicensis has ricaes, metudees, astelids, 
moncynnaes, tiadae, for rices, metudes, astelide, moncynnes, tiade ; and msecti, drictin, 
for maecte, dricten- 

70. It is a principle in English pronunciation, that the vowel before r in termina- 
tions takes the sound of u, [Walker's Pron. Diet. § 98, 418], In MS. Episc. Nor- 

* Like b in J.-S. lybban vivere, Asg. bk. libba; in Frs. v. libben vfta ; Frs. v. libje vivere, 
and A.-S. lyfan vivere; /isg. bk. 189, lif /(/"e. 



FlUESIC — CHANGES IN ANGLO-SAXON. lix 

wicensis we have, uuldur, fadur, for uuldor, fader. Before n the a is also changed 
into u, as fold." or foldun, middun, for foldan, middan. 

71. The a was not yet resolved into ea, as ward, barnum, for weard, bearnum ; 
nor the o into eo, as scop \_Old. Dut. schoep ; Ger. gaskop creabaf] for gesceop 
agreeing with the present Dut. schiep. * 

7*2. The e, which has its origin in i, and was afterwards changed hito eo, remained 
unaltered in heben, hefaen for heofon. It seems that eo has produced o in -fon, in 
the same manner as ce proceeded from e, and affords an instance of some assimilation 
of vowels in two succeeding syllables. I must add, however, that it is questionable 
whether the vowel of the latter syllable operates upon that of the former, or the 
former upon that of the latter. If the vowel of the former syllable depend upon that 
of the latter, then -faen and -fon were changed before he- and heo- ; but if the latter 
upon that of the former, then he- and heo- before -faen and -fon. I do not lay much 
stress upon this observation, as languages in their most ancient state have not this 
kind of assimilation ; it seems, however, to rest in the mind on the same foundation 
as alliteration, both being a feeling for rhythm. For whatever may be the assimilation of 
one syllable to another in the same word, the same relation one word has to another 
in two successive lines of poetry. This assimilation of vowels is called by German 
grammarians umlaut. 

73. The ia being proper to the old Westphalian and Zelandic, undergo no change 
in tiadae ; the i being changed into e, the a ought to follow the impulse and pass to o, 
and make teode from teon producere ; to hape tiath in unum conveniunty Asg. bk. 335 ; 
tya ducere, Em. I. 88 ; tioda ducebat ; Icel. tiadi, id. The Mots, tiuhan ducere ; 
tauch ducebat; hence the Frs. v. teach, taech, Frs. I. 79, 81 : but there was once an 
Old Frs. imperfect tiade, as the JDut. tijde. 

74. So i had not yet passed to e, nor u to o, in metudaes, later metodes. 

75. The imperfect astelidae was not yet contracted to astealde. 

76. It is clear that the earliest languages consisted of single words, and 
that two separate ideas were expressed by two separate words ; but, by 
being constantly used together, at last united in one idea and one word. 
The adjective, in this process, passing from adjectives, separately existing, 
to the first and specifying component of the word, loses the adjective 
termination, by doubling its accent on the principal vowel, and looks like 
an adverb or preposition compounded with a word. 

Thus, on ealddagum olim, originally on ealdum dagum olim ; Dut. eertyds, 
originally eeres tijds in former times. Dut. oudvader ; Ger. altvater a patriarch, 
formerly oude vader, and alte vater. In the 3IS. Episc. Norwic. we meet with an 
instance in which the meaning of such a compound appears, but the grammatical form 
is not yet developed. The compound aelda barnum appears as two words, yet aelda 
is not in the dat. as it ought to be when separate, and it only requires the process 
of time to become one word aeldbarnum, the same as Ger. altvater. Aelda barnum 
does not signify antiquis liberis, but children of old; and thus it has the whole 
meaning of the compound, but only half its grammatical form. Alfred, finding the 
phrase a little antiquated, used eor<San bearnum filiis terrce. There could be no 
objection to the form, because, in Alfred's time, ealda-faeder, ealde-moder, and ealde- 
wita, were sometimes used for ealdfa^der avus, ealdmoder avia, ealdwita senior 
ecclesice. 

77. The pronoun jje was omitted before scylun we tnust, precisely as the Moes. 
skulum debemus, Lk. xviii. 1. 

78. In this word the u had not yet been changed into eo. From Moes. skulum was 
derived A.-S. scvlun, the more modern sceolon. 



Ix 



FRIESIC ALLIED TO EARLY SAXON. 



79. As a had not yet gone over into ea, or o into eo, or e into eo, so also e had not 
yet been changed into ea .- thus we find astelids for astealde. 

80. This comparison affords a few important deductions. As there 
appears to be no mixture of the dialect of the Northmen, the MS. must be 
of a date anterior to their conquest of Northumberland, which agrees with 
the statements of Wanley. 

81. In it we find also many analogies with cognate languages not 
apparent in the writings of Alfred, and this affords a further proof of the 
antiquity of the MS.; for we have already observed, that the resemblance 
of languages is greater in proportion to their age, and, on the other hand, 
that dialect differs most which has most diverged from the. parent 
stock.* 

82. The development of the diphthongs ea and eo from simple vowels, 
was the result of nearly two centuries between the date of the ^aS^. Episc. 
Norwic. and the time of Alfred ; for no one, I believe, will pretend that 
the simple vowel in these instances was a dialectic variation peculiar to 
Northumberland, as these diphthongs are still distinctly pronounced there, 
like death in Yorkshire. The diphthong was of course developed in the 
north, as well as in the south of England. If we now go back still 
further, from the time of the MS. Episc. Norwic. to the descent of the 
Anglo-Saxons on Britain, [from 737 to 449,] and if we suppose that during 
this period the cognate languages approached nearer to the A.-S. in the 
same proportion as they did from Alfred to Caedmon, then indeed we 
have a clear conception how all these tribes of Jutes, Angles, Saxons, and 
Friesians, whose languages some centuries later were quite unintelligible 
to one another, could, at their departure from their native shores to 
Britain, as men of one speech, unite in council and action. 

83. This comparisoa implies further, that the peculiarities by which 
the A.-S. is distinguished, relate to the state in which this tongue has 
come down to us. 

84. I have nothing more to add about the Moeso-Gothic, to what 
I stated in the fourteenth and fifteenth paragraphs. The peculiar cha- 
racter of the A.-S., as distinguished from the Moeso-Gothic, would for the 
most part be removed, if we could trace the A.-S. to the time of the 
Moeso-Gothic, about the middle of the 4th century. The means of 
comparison are greatly increased by the exertions of Angelo Mai, Count 
Castiglione and Massmann.f The stores within the reach of Junius were 
exhausted by him, for comparison with the A.-S. in almost every word of 
his Glossarium Gothicum, in many articles of his Etymologicon Anglica- 
num, and in his other Dictionaries, still sleeping, to the common shame 
of the English and Friesians, in the Bodleian Library, Oxford. The first 
that made a classification and comparison of the Gothic languages was 
Lambert ten Kate, a Dutchman. The foundation laid by him has more 

♦ § 14. t See VIL 7—11. 



FRIESIC BOOKS. IXl 

recently been greatly extended by the unwearied toil of Rask and Grimm. 
I need not boast that 1 have done the same, for it requires no genius — the 
labour is purely mechanical. Some will present you with the oldest form of 
a word, but this is not right, when it has to be compared with a subse- 
quent and more advanced development. For my part, I shall not hesitate 
to avail myself of the labours of my predecessors, and to cite parallel 
words in different cases and times, when 1 think it does not affect the 
vowel or consonant to be compared. 

85. I do not know any A.-S. scholar, who has instituted a comparison 
between the Anglo-Saxon and Friesic so minute as their near relationship 
claims. Some did not see the force of the comparison, and all wanted 
materials. A brief account of the materials I have used may not be 
uninteresting. 

86. The Asega-bok* the book of the judge, contains the laws of the 
Rustringian Friesians located around the gulf of the Jade, as far as the 
southern banks of the Weser. Its date may be about a.d. 1212-1250. 

87. Littera Brocmannorum,f the letter, i.e. the written law of the 
Brocmen, Friesians bordering on the sea in the western part of East- 
Friesia, [Dut. Oostvriesland]. Its date is reckoned between a.d. 1276 
and 1340. 

88. The Amesga-riuchtfi the code of the country of the Ems, con- 
taining registers of the mulcts for the Friesians situated about the eastern 
banks of the Ems, a.d. 1276-1312. 

89. The Keranfon Hunesgena londe,% [Dut. Het Hunsingoer land- 
recht,] the statutes of the country of Hunsingo, a.d. 1252, revised and 
corrected, but as to their origin of a far earlier date. This most remark- 
able monument of Friesian antiquity is published in the Verhandelingen 
van het genootschap pro excolendo jure patrio, tom. ii. Groningen, 
1778, but in a manner so negligent, that I deem it matter of great danger 
for a critic to cite words from this edition. I, however, entertain the 
pleasing hope, that this defect will soon be redressed by one of my friends, 
who intends to publish a second edition, founded on an excellent codex 
within our reach, as soon as the literary public feel inclined to defray the 
costs of the press. 

90. Jeld and botha,\\ the value of the money and the mulcts, to be 

• Asega-buch ein Alt-friesisches gesetzbuch der Rustringer, herausgegeben, ubersetzt und 
erlautert von F. D. Wiarda, Berlin, 1805. 

t Willkiiren der Brockmanner eines freyen Friesischen volkes, herausgegeben von F. D. 
Wiarda, Berlin, 1820. 

X Het Emsiger landregt van het jaar, 1812. Leeuwarden, 1830, published by Mr. Hettema. 

§ Verhandelingen ter nasporinge van de wetten en gesteldheid onzes vaderlands door een 
genootschap te Groningen, pro excolendo jure patrio, torn. v. Groningen, 1773-1828. 

II Groot placaat en Charterboek van Vriesland, verzamelt door G. F. Baron thoe Schwart- 
zenberg en Hohenlansberg, 5 vols, folio ; Leeuwarden, 1768-1793. The pages 59—461, 
containing a catalogue of the ecclesiastical estates in Friesia, made up by order of Charles V. 
though already printed, are suppressed in the 3rd volume, and replaced by other materials. 
A great number of the estates, after the Spanish revolution, having fallen into unjust hands, it 
was feared that the publication would be an inducement to endless curses and persecutions 
against the aristocracy. The 6th tome is also printed, but not yet published, for the 
greatest number of the copies was burnt during the disorders of the French Revolution. 



1X11 FRIESIC — WHEItE Sl'OKEN. 

observed in several parts of the country of Friesia^ forming a part of the 
present kingdom of the Netherlands. This piece is of a.d. 1276, and 
published in the Groot placaat en Charterboek van Vriesland, torn. i. 
p. 97, together with a great many little records of latter times in the 
Friesian tongue. 

91. The most complete system of Friesian laws,* though of a more 
recent date than the foregoing, is contained in the Old Friesian LawSy 
published by two eminent Friesian lawyers, P. Wierdsma and Brantsma, 
whose commentary bears witness to the depth and extent of their erudi- 
tion. The laws in this collection, as well as those found in the Charter- 
boek, had force chiefly within the limits of the country of Friesia in the 
Netherlands. 

92. To the same country belongs also the collection of charters 
dispersed in the history of its capital Leeuwarden, by Gabbema.f They 
are all of a recent date, when the Friesic was about to be disused in 
public charters. In the enumeration of these laws and records, I have 
descended from the north to the south, beginning at the Wezer and 
ending at Old Friesia, situate at the mouth of the Rhine. But let us 
now ascend still higher, beginning with the Friesians conterminous with 
the Angles. 

93. Friesic is still spoken in a tract of country bordering the coast of 
the German sea, in the district of Bredsted, dutchy of Schleswig. It is 
strongly tainted with Danish ; but a corn-merchant of my native village, 
[Friesia, part of the Netherlands,] on going there to buy rapeseed, was 
not a little surprised that he and the peasants could understand each 
other in their respective mother-tongues. The late Reverend N. Outzen 
has left a glossary of the Friesic dialect, which for some years has been in 
the press, at the expense of the Royal Society of Copenhagen. The first 
eighty-eight pages, which were intended for me by my friend the late 
Professor Rask, and sent to me through the courteous attention of Professor 
Rafn, have fully convinced me of the identity of this dialect with the 
other branches of the Friesic. 

94. Of the language of the Ditmarsian Friesians, and those living 
between the Elbe and Wezer, nothing remains. Their long and obstinate 
struggle against the aggressions of the Danish kings, Bremish bishops, or 
dukes of OldenburgjJ terminating with the extinction of their liberty and 
language, has long since effaced the last trace of the Friesian tongue and 
nationality, and destroyed the MSS. of their ancient laws. 

95. A more lucky fate was allotted to the land between the Wezer and 



• Oude Friesche wetten met eene Nederduitsche vertaling en ophelderende aantekeningen 
voorzien. Part I. Campen en Leeuwarden, 1782. The Preface and Part II., though prepared 
by the publishers, were lost after the death of Wierdsma. 

t Verhaal van de stad Leeuwaarden-beschreevenvan Simon Abbes Gabbema, Franeker, 1701. 

X U. Emmius, Hist. Fries. H5, 588, &c. Wiarda, Ostfrisische geschichte, I. 202. 



FRIESIC OF THE ASEGA-BOK, A.D. 1220. Ixiil 

the Ems. The latter subjugation of this country has caused the 
preserving of a single codex of the Asega-b6k in the archives of 
Oldenburg. I here give a specimen of its language. 

Thit is thet twintegoste londriucht. This is the twentieth landright (law), 

Sa hwersa northmann an thet lond hla- When any Northman leaps on the land 

path, and hia enne mon fath. and bindath. (shore), and he takes a man, and binds 

anutoflande ledath. and eft withir to and leads (Am) out of the land, and brings 

londe brangath and hini ther to twingath (him) after {wards) to the land {ashore) 

thet hi husbarne. and wif nedgie. and and forces him to this, that he burns houses 

man sle and gadis hus barne. and hwed and violates wives,and slays men and burns 

sa hi to lethe dwa mi. alsa hi thenne God'shouses, andwhathemaydotoharm, 

undfliuch ieftha lesed werth. and withir (A.-S. laSe.) When he then flees away 

to londe kumth. and to liodon sinon. or is loosed, and again comes to land, 

sa willath him tha liode thing to seka. and his lede^ (is restored to his land and 

and sinne opa werpa'* truch thet gintec kindred). If then the court of justice of 

morth ther hi er mith tha witsingon<i the people will seek him (prosecute him), 

efrenuth^ heth. Sa mire thenne afara and his relations intend to charge him 

thene warf gunga. and iechta mire tala. with the horrible murder which he has 

enne eth hach^hi thenne opatha heligon ere (formerly) framed (committed) with 

to swerande. thet hit al dede hi there the pirates ; he may then go (appear) 

nede. alsa him sin hera bad. ther hi was before the court, and he may tell (con- 

liues. and lethana§ en unweldich mon. fess) known and proved facts ; he ought 

Sa ne thuruon'' him tha liode ne frana. then to swear an oath by the saints, that 

to halda seka ni sinna truch thet thi frana he did it all by need (force), as his lord 

ne muchte him thes fretha^ waria.J thi bade him, because he was a man not 

skalkk skolde dwa alsa him sin hera bad wielding his life (body) and members. 

truch thes liues willa Asega-b6}i,^.Ql. In this case, neither the leAe (people), 

nor the king's attorney, nor his relations, 

are allowed to seek him (harass him) with fetters, through (because) that the 
attorney might not (was unable) to secure him his safety. The servant should 
do as his lord bade him through will of the life (for the sake of his life). 



a A.-S. weorpan, werpan, j'acere. b Lede people, Jun. Et. Angl. 

« ginte Wiarda translates yonder. I deem it to be horrible, tremendous murder, wjiich agrees 
with the Low-Saxon version of the Asega-bok, which has great, enormous murder. This word 
is connected with A.-S. ginian, of course yawning, enormously vast, horrible. In this way the 
English adj. huge vast, great even to deformity, explains the meaning of Icel. ugr terror, whence 
ugly; of A.-S. oge, whence Frs. v. [ouw-lik] onjouwlik horrible, all derived from the idea of 
wide vastness, still apparent in Moes. auhn, Swed. ogn, ugn. 

d A.-S. wicing pirata. The c by the Friesic and English being changed into tsh, wicing 
becomes witsing. Thus A.-S. cerene, Frs. v, tsher'ne or tsjerne, Eng. churn. Sometimes the 
Frs. V. retains both forms with some shade of the signification : Frs. v. katje to talk, but 
tsjatterje to chat, chatter. From A.-S. cidan, properly to make a noise as an inharmonious bird, 
and hence to quarrel, the Frs. v. has only tsjitte to make a noise as quarrelling sparrows and 
women. The original signification, now lost in English, was very well known in the old 
English. " The swalowes chyterid and songe." — Golden Legend, I. 493. Frs. v. De swealen 
tsjittene in songen. — It is dubious whether wicing is to be derived from wic-cing sinus vel 
ripce unde insidiabantur pirata, rex, or from wig-cing the king of slaughter. 

e A.-S. fremad. Wiarda not knowing this Anglo-Saxon word, deems efrenuth to be 
spurious ; for this word does not occur elsewhere. This instance may teach us how easily the 
most difficult words are explained in Anglo-Saxon and Friesic, when aided by each other. 

f Ah possidet, proprie, vinctus est, of the verb agan. ? A.-S. litSa. 

♦» The Anglo-Saxon has the Friesian form in this verb thurfon. 

' A.-S. hx^'i^n protegere, friiSpa.r. J A.-S. warian cavere. ^ j^.g. scealc servxcs. 



Ixiv 



FKIESIC OF BROCMEn's LAWS, AD. 1280. 



96. Let it be remarked, that the u having the power of ou in 
Fr. doux, or Eng. cube, is changed by the Frs. v. into o ; undfliiich, 
iinweldich, mucht, truch, gunga, are now pronounced ontjiyucht, 
onweldich, 7nocht, troch, gonge. 



97. Brocmen kiasath thet to enre 
kerea thet ther nene burga and mura^ 
and nannen hach sten hus ne mota 
wesa bi achta mercum. and hoc redieua 
thit naud ne kerth and efter naud 
ne dele leith. sa geie*= hi mith achta 
mercum and mitha huse wit [h]liude. 
hine skiriene^ fon. and werther aeng 
mon [h]agera sa tuelef ier[d]foda hac 
[h]andre^ tiuke, and wasa welle makia 
enne szelnre sa mot hi ne makia vr 
tua feke/ ief hi welle. andre thiuke. 
and makath aeng otheres sa geie hi 
mith achta mercum,^ thi ther otheres 
wercth. and tha nya redieua skelin hit 
onfa,** efter tham ther tha erra' thene 
frethe vt kethet^ bi alsa den re geie. 
Stenslek'' hwile efter al tha londe buta 
munekum and godes husen bi alsa denre 
geie. — Statutes of the Brocmen, p. 130. 

cutting cease through all the land, but 
houses by the mulct mentioned. 



Brocmen choose (made) this to a 
statute, that there no borough (castle) 
and wall, and no high house of stone 
must be by (the mulct) of eight marks : 
and whatsoever rede - giver (counsel, 
judge) hinders not this, and after (being 
built) lays not (pulls) down, he may atone 
for it with eight marks, and with the 
house with (the) lede (people), unless he 
clears himself. And turns (builds) any 
man higher than twelve earth-feet (a 
measure) high to the roof, and who will 
(intends to) make a cellar, he must not 
make over (above) two stories. If he 
will (intends) to the roof and makes any 
(thing), otherwise let him atone for it 
with eight marks, who works otherwise. 
And the new judges shall accept it after 
the former (Judges) have proclaimed the 
peace (this statute for the public security/) 
by the mulct mentioned. Let stone- 
(excepi in building) monks' and God's 



98. From this example it may be seen that the text is corrupt, and 
cannot be cited without employing some criticism. It suflBces, however, to 
show the extreme jealousy of a free people for their liberty, so as even not 
to allow the building of a house of stone, or of more than two stories 
above a cellar, that the possessor might not thence annoy his countrymen, 
and use his house as an instrument of tyranny. Building their churches 
alone of stone, they fortified them at the same time, together with the 
surrounding parishes; and this forming a single connected stronghold, they 
retired there after the loss of a battle, and defended at the same moment 
the two dearest possessions of mankind, their liberty and their altars, 
against the insults of oppression. It is for this reason that Friesland does 
not offer any ruins of castles of the middle age to the eye of the antiquary, 
which are of so frequent occurrence on the borders of the Rhine and 
almost in every part of Europe. They still retain their ground, name. 



a A.-S. curan eligere. ^ A.-S. mur murus. 

c Icel. geigr offensa, clades. ** A.-S. scir pur us. 

e An there. ^ A.-S. faec spatium. s ^.-S. mearc moneta qucBdam. 

h A.-S. andfoa accipere. ' A.-S. aerra, sera prior. J A.-S. cy^an notumfacere. 

^ A.-S. staen lapis, slaege ictus, slecge malleus major. Frs. v, slei malleus major ligneus. 



FRIESIC OF HUNSINGO. 



Ixv 



language and national character, the only remnant of Friesian antiquity 
unknown to the travelling antiquary, whose eyes are attracted by the 
more glaring objects of old walls, palaces, tombs, and castles. It is most 
likely that we are indebted to these statutes for the absence of any vaulted 
cellar in Friesia. What castles there are, owe their origin to the fatal 
internal wars of the Schieringers and Vetkopers in the 14th and 1 5th 
centuries. The Friesians, however, stood not in want of cellars as they 
do not like any salted vegetables, or vegetables at all ; flour, peas and beans, 
salted meat in the winter, and some fresh in summer, being their ordinary 
food, they do not lay up any provisions. I speak from the experience of my 
own childhood, when every one, in winter as well as summer, daily bought 
what he wanted, and a single cellar was amongst the curiosities of the 
village and its neighbourhood. 



99. § VI. Ther ne mot nen mon 
siner wiwe god wrkapie* er thet hie 

kinder •» to hape<= tein** hebbath 

Amasga-riucht, p. 59. 

§ LXV. Hvasa® annen vnseheldigen 
mon feth sunder ther rediewe willa sa 
breckt hi en grat mere anda alsa ful to 
bote.'—p. 84. 

§ LXXI. Ther ne mey nen munik 
nene erfnisse ieftha lawa fagie alsa hi 
biiewen is fon feider noch fon moder, fon 
suster noch fon broder noch fon sine 
friundem nen god wither eruie^ ther hi 
innath** claster brocht heth ieftha inna 
claster wunnen heth. — p. 89. 



There must no man sell the goods 
(bona possessions) of his wife before they 
have reared children. 

Whoso arrests an unguilty (innocent) 
man without the will {authority) of the 
judge, he so breaks {forfeits) a great 
mark {to the judge) and as much to the 
injured person. 

There may no monk, as he is with- 
drawn {from the world), fetch {accept) 
an inheritance or leavings (bequests) from 
father or from mother, from sister or from 
brother, or from his friends ; (on the con- 
trary) let nobody inherit any possession 
he has brought into the cloister, or has 
won in the cloister. 



100. Let us now pass over the Ems in the^ northern part of the 
kingdom of the Netherlands, called the province of Groningen [en de 
Ommelanden], containing close to the sea the district of Hunsingo. 

Prima Petitio. 

Thet is thiu forme kest end' thes This is the first statute and the gift 

kenenges Kerles jeft end' riucht alra' of king Charles, and the right of all 



^ A,-S. ceapian ^mere e^ vendere ; Frs. v. k^apje emere, forkeapje vendere, here wrkapie. 

b J.-S. cenned natus, productus, contracted to cen'd, kind child, like beam filius, from 
heran ferre titero, hio kennetS or beretS sxinu pariet filium, R, Mt. 1, 21. 

^ A.-S. heapum hy troops ; to hape in a single heap, i. e. together. 

^ Tia producere, part, tegen, contr. tein productus ; A.-S. teon ducere, part, tegen vel togen. 

^ A.-S. swa hwylcman swa quicumque homo. 

^ Bote, A.-S. bote reparation [of the harrri] to the injured person. But A.-S. brecan to 
break, relates to the breaking of the law, and indicates the mulct to be paid to the representer 
of the law, the judge. 

» A.-S. yrf, erfpecus, bona, hcereditas. ^ Inna ith. 

i Hwelic, contr. A.-S. hwelc, omnium hominum quisque, alra monna hwelic. 

k 



Ixvi 



FRIESrC — OLD-FRIESIC LAWS, ABOUT A.D. 1200. 



Fresena thet alra monna hwelic and 
sine gode bisitte « alsa longe saret'' unfor- 
werkat* hebbe p. 2. 



Friesians, that every one occupies his 
possessions as long as he has not for- 
feited them. 



Decima Petitio. 



Thet is thiu tiande kest thet Fresan 
ni thuren nene hereferd** firra fara sa 
aster tore^ Wisere and wester to tha 
Fli be thiu thet hia hira lond bihelde^ 
wither thet hefsr and wither there he- 
thena here. Thia bed thi kenenk Kerl 
thet hia firra tha hereferd fore aster til 
Hiddes** eckere ande wester til cinc- 
fallum.i tha bihelden hit tha liude wither 
thene keneng thet hia nene hereferd 
firra fara ne thorste sa aster til there 
wisete and wester to tha Fli. truch thet 
as scelen alle Fresa fon tha North friJ 
wesa — Keranfon Hunesgena londe, p. 6, 



This is the tenth statute, that the 
Friesians need not follow a campaign 
further eastward than to the Weser, and 
westward to the Flie; that they may 
hold their land against the sea, and 
against the host of the heathens (North- 
men). Then king Charles bade that they 
should fare (follow) the campaign further 
eastward to Hitsakker, and westward to 
Sinkfal. Then the people maintained 
their right against the king, that they 
needed not fare (follow) the campaign 
further eastward than to the Weser, and 
westward to the Flie. Through this all 
Friesians shall be free (protected, se- 
cured) from the north. 



101. Over the river Lauwers, now but a brook, we pass into Old- 
Friesia, properly so called. 



Old-Friesian Laws. 

Dat oder landriucht is. 
hweerso dyo moder her 
kyndes eerwe foerkapet, 
jefta foerwixled'' mit her 
fryonda reed eer dat kind i 
jerich is; als hit jerich se 
likje him di kaep so halde 



Country-Friesian. 

Dat oare loan-riucht is : 
hwersa dy moar™ hjar 
herns erfscip forkeapet of 
forwixelt mei hjar freonen 
ried foar 't it hem jirrich 
is; as it jirrich is, liketn 
him dy keap, sa halde hy 



English. 

The other land right is : 
whenever the mother sells 
the inheritance of her 
child, or exchanges (it) 
with rede (counsel) of her 
friends (kindred), before 
the child is of age ; when 



» A.-S. besittan possidere. b Sa er het. 

e A.-S. wyrcan facere. A.-S. forwyrcan faciendo perdere, amittere,mulctari. 

«• A.~S. here exercitus, fere iter. Thus the A.-S. heregang irruptio, faran ire. 

e To there. ^ A.-S. behealdan custodire. 

9 A.-S. ofer heafo super mare, Beow. Ed. Kemble, 1833, p. 171. 

^ A little town or village near Danneberg, close to the Elbe — at present, Hitzacker. 

' Sinkfal close to the mouth of the Schelde. See Van Wijn and Siccama, cited § 36. It 
is now called het Zwin and het Hazegat. 

J FriiSian protegere. 

^ The word wixelje, whose theme wix or wex, is obvious nearly in all kindred dialects; 
it sounds in A.-S. wi-ix. A.-S. wrixian permuiare. The Scots, however, use to whissle. 

1 Kynd is unknown in the Country- Friesic, as in the A.-S. and Eng. 

•° Moar is now used in contempt, or to indicate the mother of a beast. The term equal to 
mother is mem. 

" Lykje and A.-S. lician are neuter verbs with the regimen of a dative, like the Lat in 
placet mihi, mannum iycatS hominibus placet. In English, the neuter signification has 
nearly degenerated into the active ; for to like signifies more to approve with preference, than 
to please. 



FRIESIC — OLD-FRIESIC LAWS, ABOUT A. D. 1200. 



Ixvii 



hittena ende liker'' him 
naet so fare hit*^ oen syn 
ayn eerwe sonder stryd 
ende sonder schulde. 



So hwaso dat kind bi- 
fiucht jefta birawet op syn 
ayn eerwe so breckt hy 
tyen lyoedmerck ende to 
jens dine frana^* dat sint 
XXI schillingen : ende alle 
da lyoed agen him to 
helpen ende di frana, dat 
hy comme op syn ayn 
eerwe, deer hy eer bi 
riuchta aechte : hit ne se 
dat hioet^ seld habbe jef 
seth, jef wixled truch dera 
tria haudneda een, deer 
hio dis kyndes des lives 
mede hulp. Dyo forme 
need is : hweerso een 
kynd jong is finsen ende 
fitered noerd oer hef, jefta 
suther wr birgh/ soe moet 
dio moder her kyndes 
eerwe setta ende sella 
ende her kynd lesa ende 
des lives bihelpa. Dive 
oder need is jef da jere 
diore wirdet ende di heta 
honger wr dat land faert 
ende dat kynd honger 
stera wil, so moet dio 
moder her kyndes eerwe 
setta ende sella ende capia 
her bern ku^ ende ey'° 



't him, in lykke er him 
net sa farre hy it oan syn 
ein erfscip sonder striid in 
sonder scild. 



Hwasa it bern befiucht 
of bestelt op syn eigen erf 
sa brekt hy tsjien Ijomerk 
in tsjin de frana binne dat 
ienintweintich sceljen, in 
al de Ijo hawwe de frana in 
him to helpjen, dat hy op 
syn ein erf komt der 't 
him eren nei riuchten ta- 
kaem, as it net is dat hja 
it forkoft het, of forset, 
of wixle troch ien fen de 
trye haedneden, der hja it 
berns libben mei holp. 
Dy eerste need is : hwersa 
ien bern jong is finsen 
in fitere noard oer se of 
suwdlik oer berch, sa 
mat de moar hjar berns 
erfscip forsette in forke- 
apje, in hjar bern losse 
in it libben beholpje (be- 
warje). De oare need 
is : as de jirren djoer 
wirde in de hjitte honger 
oer it loan fart in it 
bern fen honger stjerre 
wol, sa mat de moar 
hjar berns erfecip forsette 
in forkeapje, in keapje 
hjar bern ky* in eikes 
(sciep) in koarn der me 



he is of age, likes he the 
bargain, let him hold it (Jo 
the purchaser), and does 
he not like it, let him fare 
(enter') on his own inheri- 
tance without strife and 
without debts. 

Whoever fights or be- 
reaves the child on his own 
ground, he forfeits ten lede- 
marks (marks to be paid to 
the people as wronged), 
and to the king's attorney^ 
the mulct is xxi shillings ; 
and all the lede (^people) 
ought to help him and the 
king's attorney, that he 
may come to his own in- 
heritance, which he owned 
before by right ; unless she 
has sold, or set (^pawned), 
or exchanged it through 
one of the three head needs 
(necessities) by which she 
helped the life of the child. 
The first need is : when- 
ever a child is made prison- 
er and fettered J northward 
over the sea, or southward 
over the mountains, the 
mother must set {pawn) 
and sell her child's inherit- 
ance, and release her child 
and save its life. The 
other need is : if the years 
become dear, and sharp 
hunger goes over the land, 
and the child wiU starve k 
of hunger, then the mother 



» Hi or hjam it him. ^ Like er. <= Hi it. 

d From/ra, properly the first, frea dominus, and frana the lord, i.e. the king's attorney in 
the court of justice; summus, princepS, i. e. judex populi, § 48. 

« Hioe it, effer hjoe it. ' A.-S. beorh, byrg coUis, arx, civitas ; borough. 

? Ku cow. Of ku pi. Lf. 91, 93, 152. A.-S. cu cow, pi. cu, gen. cuna. 

'' A.-S. Eowu ovis matrix ; ewe. 

> Kou cow, pi. ky; y sounds like e in me, or like the Dut. ij in mij. 

J A.-S. feter pedica. 

*' Starve is not to be derived from Dut. sterven to die, but from Ic. at starfa laborare, cerum- 
nis premi. For to starve, is to sufier all sorts of misery, in use chiefly that of hunger ; for this 
reason starveling, properly eerumnosus, is used in the sense of hungry, lean, pining. Lye has 
stearfian without authority; but steorfa pestis is in Lup. I., where Lye properly cites the 
English phrase, A starfe take you, te pestis perdat. Dut. sterven to die, is not the first, but 
the second meaniner. 



Ixviii 



FRIESIC — OLDFRIESIC LAWS, ABOUT A. D. 1200. 



ende coern, deerma da 
kinde des Hues mede 
helpe. Dyo tredde need 
is : als dat kynd is al 
stocknaken * jefta huus- 
laes, ende dan di tiues- 
tera** nevil*^ ende calda 
winter oencomt, so faert 
aller manick oen syn hof •* 
ende oen syn huis ende 
an waranne ^ gaten, ende 
da wylda dier seket dyn 
holla baem ende der 
birgha hly, aldeer hit syn 
lyf oen bihalda mey ; sa 
weinet ^ ende scryt ^ dat 
onjeriga kind ende wyst** 
dan syn nakena lyae ende 
syn huuslaes ende syn 
fader deer him reda schuld 
to jenst dyn honger ende 
winter nevil cald dat hi 
so diepe ende dimme 
mitta fiower neylen is 
on der eke ende on der 



it bern mei yu 't libben 
helpt (halt). De tredde 
need is : as it bern alle- 
heel stoakneaken of huws- 
leas is, in den de tsiiis- 
tere nevel in de kalde 
winter oankomt, sa fart 
(tsjocht) alle man yn syn 
hoaf in yn syn huws in 
yn warjende gatten, in 
de wylde djier siikje de 
hoUe beam in de lyte 
fen de bergen, der it 
syn liif yn behalde mei; 
sa weint in scriemt it 
onjirrige bern in wiist 
den syn neakene lea in 
syn huwsleazens, in syn 
faer, der him rede scoe 
tsjin de honger in de 
winter -nevel -kalde, that 
hy sa djip in dimster 
(tsiiister) mei de ^ouwer 
neilen onder de iik in onder 
de ierde is besletten in be- 



must set {pawn) and sell 
her child's inheritance, and 
buy her child cows and 
ewes and corn, wherewith 
the life of the child is 
helped {preserved). The 
third need is : when the 
child is stark-naked, or 
houseless, and then the 
dark fog and the cold 
winter come on, when 
every man fares {enters) 
his house and its appurte- 
nances, and lurking holes, 
and the wild deer (beasts) 
seek the hollow beam {tree) 
and the lee* of the moun- 
tains, where it may save 
its life; then moans and 
weeps the minor child, and 
shows his naked limbs and 
his being houseless, and 
[points at] his father, who 
should provide for him 
against hunger and the 



* A.-S. stoc stipes, truncus ; stock. ^ A.-S. Jjeoster dark. 

c A.-S. newelnysse nuhes. ^ A.-S. hof domus, spelunca. 

e A.-S. warian to defend, wariande, by assimilation, waranne, part. pres. act. defending 
Wara, inf. Sch. 103, a. to defend. The first stronghold was an enclosure, and the root of the 
signification of the verb is in A.-S. waer septum, Wera or wer hedge, fence, Lf. 204. 

^ A.-S. Wanian plorare. Weine is in Frs. v. to moan like a sick man, sc. to croon. 

g Likewise scria to weep, from Icel. kria quseri ; Icel. at krita minurire, or rather fr6m to cry, 
also to scream : Frs. v. scrieme to weep, from A.-S. hreman. 

^ A.-S. wisian to show, obvious in weather-wiser. 

* The root hie and le exists in A.-S. hligan : pe pec men bligaiS which incline thee to man ; 
where the reading of hnigaS for hligatS is to no purpose at all, Cd. 235, 25, Ed. Thorpe. The 
Icelanders have the same root in their hlickr obliquitas, curvamen. To this is perhaps also 
related A.-S. ligan, {inclinare) cubare,jacere, {tegere) mentiri. Moes. hliga tabernaculum, shows 
that the aspiration originally belonged to Moes. ligan jacere. The other form, Moes. laugnjan, 
nearly equivalent to Goth, liugan (tegere) mentiri et uxorem ducere, whence A.-S. leogan to lie, 
signifies to hide and to deny, in which the same transition of the sense is observable. In the 
same manner, A.-S. Jjacian tegere, and Moes. Gott. thahan tacere. 

The second form is furnished with a d in Icel. at hllda inclinare, cedere, obedire, from Icel. 
hlid devexitas vel latus montis, whence also Dan. en fjeldlie. Lida, besides the h, takes also 
s and g in to slide and to glide, per devexa labi. To cover by inclining, hence A.-S. hlid 
covering, potlid ; Ems. Land. 8, 82, hlid eyelid; Frs. v. eachlid, lid potlid ; Icel. hlid ostium, 
j)orta (the cover of the entrance). The Goths had likewise this form in their hleithva a tent. 

I return to le without a final consonant, A.-S. hleo covering, shelter, refuge; Ab. ^Q, place 
sheltered from the wind. The lee side, Dut. de lij (a sea term) the side of the ship not exposed to 
the wind. As the sailor must determine the situation of surrounding objects from the relative 
position of his vessel, the coast opposite to his lee-side is called by him the lee-shore, though 
it is the shore towards which the wind blows, and necessarily must blow. The sailor does 
not regard the position of the shore as to the wind, but as to the sides of his vessel, and lee 
in this phrase denotes too, calm, quiet. I was induced to make these remarks to silence an 
objection of Dr. Jamieson, who concludes, from the signification of lee-shore, that lee, 
Scot, le, cannot be sheltered from the wind, and derives the word from Icel. la, lea. See Todd's 
Johnson in loco, Jamieson in loco. 



FRIESIC — SOUTH HOLLAND. 



Ixix 



da eerda bisloten* ende 
bitacht ;'' so moet dio 
moder her kindes eerwe 
setta ende sella, om dat 
hio da bihield*^ habbe 
ende biwaer also lang so 
hit onjerick is, dat hit 
oen forste ner oen hoen- 
ger naet forfare.'* 



ditsen ; sa mat de moar 
hjar berns erfscip forsette 
in forkeapje, om dat hja 
it opsicht het in de be- 
waering sa lang as it on- 
jirrich is, dat it oan froast 
of oan honger net for- 
farre (forreisgje, stjerre). 



wintry fog-cold, that he 
so deep and dim {dark) is 
locked up and covered un- 
der the oak and under the 
earth with four nails (spikes 
to fasten the coffin) : so the 
mother must set {pawn) 
and sell her child's inherit- 
ance, since she has the 
keeping and guarding as 
long as [the child] is under 
age, that it dies not from 
frost or from hunger. 

102. Let us now pass over the Zuiderzee, formerly the northern 
outlet of the Rhine, and by the irruptions of the German ocean enlarged 
to a mediterranean sea. The Friesians living on that side were ever the 
object of the tyranny of the Dutch counts, [HoUandsche Graven,] and 
after a furious struggle of three hundred years, in which their love of 
freedom and undaunted bravery recalled the days of Greece, they were at 
last subdued by the united forces of the Count and Emperor. Political 
power, assisted by the influence of the priests, soon triumphed in spoiling 
their national language and character. The country is, however, in some 
maps still marked Westfriesland, now called Noordholland ; and when at 
x\msterdam you pass the Y, a narrow water separating this town from 
Westfriesland, you perceive distinctly that you are amongst another 
people. The peculiarities of Zaandam, Broek, and other villages by 
which the inhabitants of North Holland are distinguished from other 
Dutchmen, are too well known to be recorded here. I will only mention 
the particular, that the peasants of Waterland still spoke Friesic in the 
middle of the 17th century. 

103. We pass from North to South Holland. As we proceed and 
approach nearer to Sincfalla, (now the Swin or Haze gat, on the left side 
of the mouth of the Scheld,) the ancient southern border of Friesia, we 
find the Friesians, who were thinly scattered along the coasts, were the 
earlier blended with their more powerful neighbours. Nor are any 
traces of their tongue and character to be found, except in a few names of 
villages. It, however, deserves our attention, that the Flemish tongue 



* Read bisletten, part, praet. pass, of the verb bisluta to enclose. Hence the Scot, to slott to 
bolt. The root is Moes. and A.-S. lukan to close, preceded by the sibilation. 

^ Bitekka <o cover, bitacht cowere/i. A.-S. j^eccan to cover, {^eaht covered. Hence takere 
the case which covers and holds the feathers of a bed. Takeres-jefta the sum paid by the bride to 
her brother-in-law for ceding her his half in the bed of her man, Frs. I. 29. The Dutch in full 
beddetijk, and by ellipsis tijk, like the Eng. tick; Frs. v. teek, from A.-S. jjecan. It is singu- 
lar, that the Eng. thatch, and the Frs. v. tek, have passed both in the special signification of 
straw laid upon the top of a house to keep out the weather, 

"= A.-S. beheoldan custodire, despicere ; to behold. The Frs. v. have behald to keep, to have ; 
but not in the signification of to view. 

^ A.-S. forfaran perire, compounded of for and faran to go, as perire of per and ire. 



IXX FRIESIC FRIESIA PROPER. 

now in use in that part of Belgium, bordering the southern frontier of 
Friesia, has retained a great many Friesian forms of words. 

104. It is for the third time that I return to Jutland, to investigate the 
relics of the Friesian tongue, still existing in some dialects. 

105. The remains of the Friesic on the western coast, conterminous to 
that of the Angles, have been mentioned, § 93. 

106. East-Friesia, lying between the Ems and the Jade, has forfeited 
all its claims to Friesian nationality. About the end of the 17th 
century, the people still spoke Friesic, though greatly corrupted by broad 
Low- Saxon. I am in possession of the celebrated Memoriale Linguce 
Friesiccs, exhibiting the state of this language in 1691, composed by 
Johannes Cadovius Muller, the clergyman of Stedesdorf. 

107. On the east side of East-Friesia, lies a small tract of country 
enclosed by the Ems and the Lee, which from its marshy ground is 
inaccessible during several months of the year; it is called Sagelterland, or 
Saterland, where Friesic is still spoken. In this retired spot, which has 
no way of access, and offers no allurements to strangers in hopes of 
gain, many thousand words represent the true sounds of Friesian speech. 

Amongst these many bear a striking resemblance to English words, not apparent in 
the present Country-Friesic. For instance, Sagel.]it Frs.v.i^.; Eng. yes; A.-S. 
gise. Sagel. jier ; Frs. v. jier ; Eng. year j A.-S. gear. Sagel. liddel; Frs. v. lyts; 
Frs. h. lyk ; Eng. little. Sagel. noase ; Frs. v. noas ; Eng. nose ; A.-S. nose. 
Sagel. queden ; Eng. imperf. quoth; A.-S. cwecSan. Sagel. slepen; Frs. v. sliepe; 
Eng. to sleep. Sagel. two ; Frs. v. twa; Eng. two ; A.-S. twa. Sagel. fiaurtin; 
Frs. V. fjirtjin ; Eng. fourteen : and as to the shades of signification in such words as 
Sagel. miede meadow ; Frs. v. miede hayland. Saterland, forming part of the 
kingdom of Hanover, has the same king as England. 

108. We lastly enter Friesia, properly so called, which is surrounded 
on the north, west, and south, by the Zuiderzee, forming almost a penin- 
sula, and frequented little by strangers, unless it be for the sake of 
commerce. Here the Friesians have manifested their national feelings ; 
here Tacitus and his contemporaries fixed their residence; here the Friesians 
dwelt in past ages, and, through all the vicissitudes of time, here they 
remain to the present day. It is for this reason that the French geogra- 
pher observes : " Dixhuit siecles ont vu le Rhin changer son cours et 
I'ocean engloutir ses rivages ; la nation Frisonne est restee debout comme 
un monument historique, digne d'interesser egalement les descendans des 
Francs, des Anglo-Saxons, et des Scandinaves." * This country bears the 
simple name of Friesia [Friesland], which has continued unaltered through 
all ages, and was respected even by Napoleon himself, who altered all 
other names. The surrounding parts are named according to their relative 
position with regard to this centre; hence the name of East-Friesia 
between the Ems and the Jade, and West-Friesia on the opposite coast 
of the Zuiderzee. 

* Precis de la Geographic Universelle, par M. Malte-Brun, tom.i. p. 344, Paris, 1810. 



COUNTRY-FRIESIC OF 1834. Ixxi 

109. It is, however, not merely the name which distinguishes Old- 
Friesia in the present day, it is also the language of its inhabitants, 
which, from the circumstance of its being unintelligible to the Dutch, still 
proves itself to be Friesian. At least a hundred thousand people speak 
the language commonly called Country-Friesic, which on comparison 
will be found to possess more true Anglo-Saxon sounds than any other 
dialect. In § 101, I have already given a specimen of the Old-Friesic of 
the 13th century, with a Country-Friesic version. I shall now add 
another specimen, being a literal version of some stanzas by the Countess 
of Blessington, occurring in the Book of Beauty of the year 1834. 

110. This and the other specimen (§ 101) exhibit the Country-Friesic 
in its present state. 

Country-Friesic. Stanzas by the Countess of Blessington. 

Hwat bist dou, libben ? ^ What art thou, Life ? 

len wirch ^ stribjen <= A weary strife 

Fen pine, noed '^ in search ; Of pain, care,^ and sorrow ; 

Lange oeren fen smerte. Long hours of grief/ 

In nochten ^ — ^ho koart ! And joys — ^how brief ! 

Del fordwine de moarns. That vanish the morrow. 

Dead, hwat bist dou, Death, what art thou, 

Tahwaem alien buwgje. To whom all bow. 

Fen de scepterde kening ta de slawe? From sceptred king to slave? 

De laetste, baeste freon,'' The last, best friend, 

Om uws soargen to eingjen, Our cares to end, 

Dyn gebiet is yn 't graef. Thy empire is in the grave. 

Wenneer se alien binne fled When all have fled 

Jouwst dou ien b^d. Thou giv'st a bed, 

Wser wy kalm yn sliepe ; Wherein we calmly ' sleep : 

De wounen alle hele. The wounds all heal'd, 

De digerige eagen segele. The dimJ eyes seal'd, 

Dy lang diene ^ wekje in gepje. ' That long did wake and weep. 

^ & '^ As strife is to stribjen, so is life to libben, § 63. 

'' From wirich, A.-S. werigfatigatus, by contraction wirch. ^ Noed solicitude, risk, 

e Moes. A.-S. car, and Eng. care, all signifying cura, find their original signification in the 
Frs. V. kar choice. For as the Dut. proverb says, Keus baart angst in optione cura. 

^ The word grief is Eng. and Dut, whence the Fr. grief. It is not from gravis, but from 
Dut. grieven to stab; the same with greva to dig, Frs. I. 303; Dut. graven, whence Eng. grave ; 
A.-S. grseh sculptura ; A.-S. graef; Frs. v. grsei grave. 

° Nocht pleasure, ■pro'perly ple7ity, from noach, A.-S, noh enough, or noachje to satisfy, 

^ The Old-Friesic has friond, Asg. bk. 20, 91 ; Frs. I. 162, and friund, being part. act. of 
the verb fria to love, court. The Frs. v. agrees with the A.-S. freond in freon, pronounced also 
frjeun. Friend is the Dut. form vriend. 

' Calm. The analogy of the consonants points out yaXtji/tj as the same word, but the deriva- 
tion cannot be pursued further, unless in the Greek itself. 

J Dimme obscure, Asg. bk. 87, b. 

^ Diene. A literal version, contrary to the genius of the Friesic, which forms its imp. like 
the A.-S. without the auxiliary verb to do. Low-Saxon characters, however, offer often the words, 
Hier doet men het niwasschen, mangelen, &c., literally Here men (people) do calendering, &c. 
for calender, calenders. 

' Gepje. This word is not Frs. v., it is Hindelopian, putting g for u: 



Jxxii 



COUNTRV-FRIESIC OF A. D. 1650. 



111. The following specimen shows what the same dialect was about 
1650, nearly two centuries earlier. It is a rustic song composed by 
Gysbert Japicx, supposed to be sung by a peasant on his return from 
a wedding-feast. 



Swiet,* ja swiet is 't, oer 'e miete'' 
'T Boaskien foar <= 'e jonge lie ; * 
Kreftich swiet is *t, sizz' ik jiette,'^ 
As it giet * mei alders rie.* 

Mar oars tiget 'et to *n pleach 
As ik oan myn geafeint seach.« 



1 
Sweet, yes sweet is over (heyond) measure 
The marrying for the young lede {people) ; 
Most sweet is it, I say yet (once more). 
When it goes with the rede {counsel) of the 

elders. 
But otherwise it tends to a plague {curse). 
As I saw on {ly the example of) my village 

fellow. 



Goune swobke, lit uws pearje, 
Bea hy her mei mylde stemm, 
Ofke, sei se, ho scoe 'k it klearje ! ^ 

Wist du ff rie to heite in mem ? 
Ljeaf,*' dat nim ik to myn laest. 

Dear mey wier dy knote^ faest. 



2 

Golden Swobke, let us pair. 

He bade her with a mild voice, 

Ofke, she said, how should {would) I clear it ! 

{free from obstacles) 
Knowest thou rede, father and mother ? 
{My) love! I nim {take) this to my last 

{charge) ; 
Therewith the knot was fast. 



Da dit pear to gear J 'scoe ite 
In hjae hiene nin gewin, 
Heite '' seach, as woe hy bite, 

Mem wier stjoersch in lef fen sin. 



When this pair should {would ) eat together. 

And they had no gain {livelihood). 

Father {the husband) saw as if he would 

bite {looked angry) -, 
Mother {the wife) was stern and cross of 

humour. 



a It is the genius of the Anglo-Friesic, 1st, to change the u after s, obvious in all other 
dialects, into the consonant w ; thus sfiet becomes swet : 2nd, to change the e into i ; swet, 
A,-S. swete, whether written or not with i, is pronounced like i. In the same way, lede 
people, rede counsel, were pronounced lide, ride, by contraction Frs. v. lie, rie. 

*» Miete, at present Frs. v. mjitte. c Foar, at present Frs. v. foar. 

* Yet present Frs. v. just as it is pronounced in English. It is the Anglo-Friesic fashion to 
change g into y in many instances where all other dialects retain the g. Thus Old Eng. yern 
reddily; Frs. v.jern; jerne, Asg. bk. 2, b; A.-S. georn. yesterday, Frs. v. jister; A.-S. gistra. 
Old Eng. to yet to pour ; Frs. v. jitte ; J.-S. geotan. Yet adhuc, Frs. v. yet ; J.-S. gyt. Yond 
ibi, Frs. v. jinder ; A.-S. geond. The German-Saxon dialect uses jot for gott. 

* Seach saw, sea-gen videbant; A.-S. seah videbat; A.-S. seagon videbant. 
^ Klearje, at present kljerge. 

^ This du is now become dou, as the A.-S. \>n sounds in the present Eng. thou. Tongues 
of the same original frame show the same development in their consonants as in their vowels. 
^ Ljeaf, A.-S. leof charus. 

* Kno-te, present Frs. v. knotte, an ellipsis for love-knot. It was a knotted handkerchief 
in which was a coin 3 when presented by the woer and accepted by the maiden, the knot was 
fastened. 

J To geare, now to gjerre, contr. for A.-S. geader to gather ; compounded of ge and eader 
septum, septo includi, i.e. conjunctim; together, to encompass. 

^ This word heite father is Frs. v. and Moes. atta pater, aithei mater. I wonder that the 
word is neither in the Old-Friesic nor in the A.-S. 



COUNTRY-FRIESIC OF A.D. 1G50. 



Ixxi 



Ofke, sei se, elk jier ien bern . . . . 
Wier ik faem!* Ik woe 't so jern.^ 



Hoite in Hoatske*^ sneins** to keamer 
Mekken 't mei elkoarme klear. 
Tetke krigge Sjolle-kreamer^ 
To sint Eal by wyn in bjear. 
Nu rint elk om as ien slet/ 
In bekleye 't : mar to let, 

5 
Oeds die better nei ik achtje 
Da» hy saets syn trou^ tosei ; 
Hy liet de alders even plachtje* 
Hwet se 6an elke ichJ joene mei. 

Nu besit hy huws in schuwr', 
In syn bern fleane alle man uwr. 

6 
Ork, myn soan, wolt du bedye,'' 
Rin naet 6an allyk ien moll' !' 
Jeld in rie lit mei dy frye, 
Bern, so gean' dyn saken wol ; 
Den scil de himel uwr dyn dwaen 

Lok in mylde seining' jaen."* 



Ofke, she said, each {every) year a child . . . 
Were I maiden ! I would (wish) it so yern 

(so willingly). 

4 
Hoite and Hoatske every Sunday in the inn 
Made it clear (^settled it) with each other. 
Tetke got Sjolle the pedlar 
To St. Alof s fair unto wine and bear. 
Now each runs about as a slut, 
And complains (of) it, but too late. 

5 
Oeds did better in my opinion 
When he said (gave) his troth to Saets ; 
He let the elders even plight (contract) 
What they on each edge (side) gave with 

(the married couple). 
Now he possesses house and barn, 
And his children outdo all men. 

6 
Ork, my son, wouldst thou prosper, 
Run not on all like a mole ; 
Let age and rede (good counsel) woo thee, 
Child, then thy affairs go well ; 
Then the heaven shall (tvilT) give over thy 

doings 
Luck (fortune) and mild (liberal) blessings. 



* Faem, in the dialect of Hindelope, faen maiden ; A.-S. foemna virgo. The common 
Greek yuvt? is a corruption of the Doric ^ava, corresponding with the Lat. fcemina, and the 
Anglo-Friesic fana ; for the Greek /? corresponds with the Ger. p, sometimes going over to / 
I wonder this word, obvious in A.-S. and Friesic, is totally lost in Eng. 

** See note (^) at p. Ixxii. on jiette. 

*= Hoatse, the proper name of a man, becomes that of a female by adding ke, Hoatske, at 
present Hoatse and Hoatske. A great many of these proper names of the Friesians are 
become familiar names in Eng. by adding son. Thus, Watse, Ritse, Hodse, Gibbe, Friesian 
proper names, become Watse-son, Ritse-son, Hodse-son,Gibbe-son; in the Friesian syntax, 
the son of Watse, &c., by contraction, Watson. Ritson, Hodson, Gibbson (Gibbon). 

** Snein Sunday, Senen-dei, by contraction Sneen-dei, and casting away dei, Sneen, whence 
Snien and Snein. The Hindelopians still say Senne-dei or Sendei. Galbema, p. 30, has 
Sonendei; and the Charter-boek, I. p. 534, 536, Snaynde dies solis. dei is also cast away in 
frie, and Frs. v. freed Fri-day. Correct, Junius, Gloss. Goth. p. 310. 

" From Frs. v. kream, Scot, craim a mer chant's stall, is derived kreamer a merchant in a stall. 

^ The etymology of slut is not apprehended either by Johnson, Jamieson, or Tooke. From 
A.-S. slidan to slide ; Dut. sleden lahi, trahere, comes sledde traha, now sled. The other form 
is sletan or slutan, producing Frs. v. slet a clout, towel, a dirty woman, and jB«^. slut a dirty 
woman. The Friesians in the same way form sleep a slut, from Frs. v. sleepje trahere. 

s A.-S. \>a, the same as Frs. v. da then, is not in Eng. 

h Trou fidelity ; A.-S. treowa, treowiS^ Scot, trouth truth; Scot, to trow to believe. 

' Plachtje to plead, bargain. It is the same word as A.-S. plihtan spondere, oppigriorare. 

J A.-S. ecge forms by assimilation egge, Asg. bk. 273, edge (of a sword) ; igge, ylsg. bic. 365. 
Igge or ich means here side, part, as in Scot, the edge of a hill, the side and the top of a MIL 

^ For be the A.-S. used ge, as ge-)3ean to thrive; the e pronounced like i, thia in Friesic, 
whence di-ja, i.e. dye. 

1 Mole is an ellipsis for mouldwarp, i.e. A.~S. moldweorp, as molle is for the common 
Frs. V. mol-wrot, from molde terra, and A.-S. wrotan, Frs. v. wrotte rostro versare. The Scots 
use by inversion of letters iTiawdiwart and moudiewort. The Eng. mouldwarp has warp from 
the A.-S. wand-wyrp, properly the turn- cast, i.e. who casts up mould by turning it. 

™ Frs. V. jaen to give, Frs. I. 26, 28, and ja to give, Frs. I. 53, 101, for Scot, ga' to give. 

I 



Ixxiv FRIESIC OF HINDELOPEN. 

1 12. To give some idea of the Hindelopian dialect, I shall add a few 
lines which I found written above the months of January, February, and 
May, in a Hindelopian calendar for seamen. The Hindelopians were 
formerly all seamen, even in the beginning of the present century. 

Januarius het xxxi deggen. January has xxxi days. 

Nyje deggen,^ nyje winscen, New days, new wishes, 

Nyje re ^ fan nyje minschen ! New rede (counsel) of new men. 

Weer us livven ek<= su ny Were our life {conduct) eke so {also as) new 

Sunden wardven lichsf^ fan fry. We grew lightly free from sins. 

Februarius het xxviii deggen. February has xxviii days. 

Silerse meye winters reste,f Sailors may rest in winter, 

Thus tu blieuwen mut jerm leste; To stay at home {to house) must please them. 

Lot& men iertske surg mer stan {If) one let earthly sorrow more stand (be) 

Mengwar^ scoe men better dwan. Many times we should {would) do better. 

Majus het xxxi deggen. May has xxxi days. 

As we tommelje oeuwer 't wetter j As we tumble {are tossed) over the water 

HeuweJ 't slim^ en soms hwet better. {Then) we have it slim {bad'") and some- 
times (then) what (a little) better. 
Su 's de wrald ek as de se, So the world is eke {also) as the sea, 

Soms fol kurje,! soms fol ne. Sometimes full of delight, sometimes full of 

need. 

' * As we have had in the preceding laest for last a burden, faest for fast, let for late, so here 
deggen for daggen. The J.-S. used also faest, daeg: but what may be the reason why the 
Eng. in a thousand such words write a, although they have ever retained the old pronunciation 
of e? Does this oddity date from the time when a, losing entirely its genuine meaning, was 
called e ? 

^ Re, contraction of the Old Eng. rede counsel. 

<= Frs. V. eak; A.-S. eac j Hindi, ek, contr. of Old Eng. eke also. 

^ It is a very remarkable property of the Hindi, dialect to insert s between ch and t ; lichst 
for licht light; ansichst visage; suchst sickliness; for ansicht {A.^S. onsien vultus, sight) sucht* 

" I have not found this word in the particular signification of a seaman (matelst) anywhere 
but in Eng. and Hindi. In Dut. een zeiler is a sailing vessel; and in Frs. v. siler is a swimmer. 

f We have u in the Ger. ruhe and the Dut. rust, but e, originating from «, in the Anglo- 
Friesic rest. 

^ Lot let ; Frs. v. lit. 

^ Meng-war is a compound of menig (men-ig) many ; and A.'S. hweorf (itus et reditus) 
vices, many times. 

* Wetter : in this word the Eng. is inconsequent by retaining the broad a in the pronunciation. 

J Heuwe we have ; Frs. v. wy hawwe. 

^ Sivax had, wrong ; T^vo'peTly curved, crooked ; Dut. Kil. sliravoet lor ipes ; slim, distortus. In 
the same way, wrong (derived from A.-S. wringan, Frs. v. wringe to wring) is properly tortus. 
This primary signification of wringing is likewise in A.-S. slincan, slingan to sling ; whence the 
frequentative form Frs. v. slingeije, and in slang a snake. In Dut. as in the north of England, 
slim tortuous has the analogical signification of sly. But slim denotes also weak and thin of 
shape in Eng. In leel. lam is a fracture, lama fractus virihus, whence at slaema (as Eng. slim 
from lim limus) debilitare ; Eng. slim weak, slight. It is not impossible that A.-S. lim limb, as 
a fracture, division, or member, belongs to this class. Further we &nd A.-S. hlaene lean, and with 
the sibilant instead of the aspirate : Dut. Frs. v. slank thin of shape, opposed to the swelling of 
an inflamed wound. Frs. v. linkje to grow less in bulk. Slink /arrow between banks in sea, Eng. 
slim slender, thin of shape. 

1 Kurje security and peace. From A.-S. cyse or eyre electio ; kar in the Swed. laws is full 
freedom in his actions, and security against all violence in his house. In the same way, Frs. v. wald, 
and A.-S. wela felicity, is from Dut. walen and welen eligere. 

™ The form of this word is one of the most ancient extant in the Eng. language not to be 
found in A.-S. nor any Germanic tongue, but only in the Persian ^ bad malignus ; in the 

Mogul language badd. The European form is wad, from A.-S. wedan ; Dut. woeden insanire, 
/wrere— -whence Dut. k-waad, kwaad bad. 



FRIESIC — LOW-SAXON GLOSSARIES. IxXV 

1 13. The never-ceasing floods of Germans at last overwhelmed the 
Friesians and their nationality. Had the Friesians sought for some 
refuge in the heart of the ocean, like their English brethren, they would 
have braved the combined force of all the continental tyrants, whether 
crowned, or representing the hydra of democracy. Only the North-Friesic, 
Saterlandic, Sciermonnikoogian, Country-Friesic, and Hindelopian remain 
as fragments that have resisted the influence of invaders to the present 
day. 

114. Low-Saxon has prevailed in all the country between Schleswic 
and the Dutch Zuiderzee, once possessed by the Friesians: it varies 
indeed in its dialects being always affected by the tongue of the bordering 
people ; in one part smooth and fluent, in another broad and coarse, as in 
the province of Groningen. All, however, are of an homogeneous nature, 
so that a person acquainted with one of them easily understands all the 
others. 

1 15. Glossaries of all these dialects have been formed. 

Of the dialect of Holstein by J. F. Schutze in his Holsteinisches IdiotikoUy 4 torn. 
Hamburg, 1800 ; — of the dialect of Hamburg by Michael Richey, in his Idioticon 
Hamburgense, Hamburg, 1754 ; — of that of Bremen and Werden by Kelp, on which 
notes are to, be found in the Collectanea Etymologica of Leibnitz I. p. 33, Hanover, 
1717; and not only of the dialect of Bremen, but also of the Low-Saxon in general, by 
a society of Bremish philologists in their Versuch eines Bremisch-Nieders'dchsischen 
Worterbuchs, Bremen, 1767, 5 vols; it will be unnecessary to cite more. I must, 
however, add, that a specimen of the present East-Friesic is to be found in the Sangh- 
fona, a collection of songs and poetry, printed at Emden, 1828, Woortman. 

116. While these dialects prevail in those parts of Old-Friesia extend- 
ing from Schleswic nearly to the northern coasts of the Zuiderzee, Dutch 
is spoken in North Holland, South Holland, and Zealand, and Flemish in 
the country surrounding Antwerp, and in Flanders. 

1 17. 1 beg leave to draw the attention of the Anglo-Saxon scholar to 
the Low-Saxon glossaries above mentioned. Many hundred Anglo-Saxon 
words will be elucidated, as to their form and meaning, by closely comparing 
them with the Low-Saxon. Low-Saxon has all the appearance of German 
grafted on an Anglo-Friesic tree. The words are Anglo-Friesic with 
German vowels, as if the Friesians, in adopting the German, retained the 
consonants of the old language. This observation may with still greater 
propriety be applied to the syntax and phraseology, that is, to the mental 
part or soul of the language. They continued to think in Anglo-Friesic 
forms, whilst their organs adopted the vowels and some other mechanical 
parts of the German. Hence there is scarcely a single expression or 
phrase extant in Anglo-Saxon, Friesic, or Dutch, of which the parallel is 
not to be found in the Low-Saxon glossaries. In short, it is the Anglo- 
Friesic idiom, with words of Germanic form. This observation also 
explains another phenomenon, which is, that scarcely a single scholar, 
a native of any place on the coast of the German sea, where Low-Saxon is 



Ixxvi FRIESIC — CORRUPTION OF ENGLISH. 

the mother-tongue, possesses the true genius of the German language. 
Though Klopstock was born at Hamburg, yet I venture to affirm that no 
scholar of the stamp of T. D. Wiarda is acquainted with the true spirit of 
the German tongue. 

118. It is for this reason, that any one who intends to compose a syntax 
of the Anglo-Saxon, after having thoroughly investigated the Friesic and 
Dutch, must not omit to compare almost every part with the Low-Saxon 
glossaries. This is an important and almost a new task. To this day the 
syntax of the Anglo-Saxon, requiring a deep insight into the hidden 
springs of speech, has been but rudely developed, only hinted at even 
by Rask, while the different forms of conjugation and declension have 
been analyzed with the most minute attention. 

119. Moreover, if the syntax of the Anglo-Saxon be the basis of the 
English syntax, as I think it is, notwithstanding a partial degeneration 
since the Norman conquest by a mixture with French,* the absurdity is 
felt of modelling the construction of the English according to that of 
corrupt Latin, known by the name of French. The construction of the 
French language is as regularly arranged as the pipes of an organ, while 
the most diversified inversion, exceeded only by that of the Latin and 
Greek, characterizes the Anglo-Saxon and Friesic ; and the more the 
English is made to differ from this standard of propriety, the more it 
deviates from its original form and its very nature. The diction and 
idiom, forming the mirror of the soul of nations, are in English and 
French as widely different as the character of the respective people. 
Hence the phenomenon, that when a foreigner well acquainted with the 
French easily understands an English author, it is certain that this writer 
is not possessed of the true genius of the English language. Addison 
may be deemed neat, pure, elegant, and fluent — 'but he is not English. 
Shakspeare wrote English; in him the English tongue and genius are 
represented. 

120. Great clamours have arisen about the total corruption of the 
English language by the mixture of French and other foreign words, and 
I readily grant that a rich language, possessed of the power of forming 
compound words from simples, wants no foreign words to express even 
new objects and ideas. But permit me to observe, that the deficiency 
has not hitherto been supplied with due consideration and taste. For 
when an author (the translator of the Lord's Prayer for instance) uses 
a certain number of foreign words, it is no proof that the English 
language had not words of its own to express the same ideas. The 
fact is, that many thousand foreign words have been introduced when 
native terms already existed, and the English has, in this way, been 
endowed with the power of expressing the same idea by two different 

• ** Children in scole against the usage and manir of all othir nations beeth compelled /or 
to leve hire owne langage, and for to construe hir lessons and hir thynges in Frenche." — 
Trevisa's Translation of Hygden's Polychronicon. See " The causes of the corruption of the 
English language," Bouchers Glossary] London; 1832, Introd. p. 39, 40. 



FRIESIC— ANALOGY OF, WITH ENGLISH. Ixxvii 

words— or, what is of still greater value, of appropriating this new word to 
mark some modification in the meaning of the indigenous word. In the 
phrases " Forgive us our debts, lead us not into temptation, but deliver us 
from evil," could there not be found amongst all the stores of the English 
language some words to express the ideas o^debt, temptatio?i, and deliver? 
If these words now bear significations somewhat diflferent from those of the 
foreign ones, if foreign words have usurped the office of native ones, this is 
no argument that at all affects the richness and proper essence of the 
language. 

121. For a proof of what I have advanced, I beg to refer the English 
reader to the Friesic pieces I have translated into English : this, however 
imperfect, will not I hope be entirely disregarded. 

My object was to show the analogy between the two languages, by translatmg them 

as literally as possible; and the cognate words in English which do not perfectly agree 

with the Friesic in sense, I have explained by others in parentheses. In 1200 words 

I have only had recourse to 50 which are not of Saxon origin — a number which might 

be greatly diminished by a scholar thoroughly acquainted with the original stores of 

the English language. At this rate, about every twenty-fourth word of the original 

fund of the language is lost. In 125 words in parentheses, I used 50 foreign words: 

here one word is lost out of every 2^. The number of words was 1200; add the 

words in parentheses 125, it makes a total of 1325. The foreign words in 1200 were 

1325 
50, and in parentheses, 50," making the sum of 100. Then = 13| ; shows that 

there is one foreign word for every thirteen English. 

122. The stanzas of the Countess of Blessington contain seventy-seven 
words, of which eight are of foreign origin, namely, pain, hours, Joy, 
scald, vanish, sceptred, empire, brief. Thus in nine and a half English 
terms, one word is exotic. 

123. The foreign w^ords in the English language are, for the most part, 
used to express scientific or abstract ideas, and were introduced from the 
French. These terms, however, do not suit the feelings of the poet ; he 
involuntarily has recourse to the original stores of his native tongue — to 
the varied construction, and the energetic and picturesque diction of the 
Anglo-Saxon — a language formed by his valiant forefathers in their savage, 
that is, poetical state. This remark fully accounts for the phenomenon, 
that a reader who is a little acquainted with French and Latin, easily under- 
stands the writings of an English lawyer, divine, or philosopher, while he 
boggles at every sentence of the poets, whose Anglo-Saxon words and 
construction are equally unknown to him. 

124. The Anglo-Saxon appears greatly disfigured as it is at present 
represented in the English. But as the granting of citizenship to foreign 
words, and the moulding of them to an English form, have led to funda- 
mental laws in the English language, every one will allow the great 
advantage that results from such a change. While all the stores of the 
numberless tongues on the globe became perfectly English when in- 
troduced into England, the Dutch, on the contrary, which may boast of 



Ixxviii FRIESIC — ENGLISH DIALECTS PRESERVE A.-S. SOUNDS. 

exquisite purity, cannot adopt a single word without its bearing the mark 
of its foreign origin. 

125. Finally, it scarcely needs be mentioned, that as genuine English 
words are for the most part Anglo-Saxon, an agreement of Friesic with 
English naturally implies an agreement of Friesic with Anglo-Saxon. 
It is for this reason, that the parallel Anglo-Saxon words are not always 
cited in the specimens in §§ 95, 97, &c. This comparison would also have 
taken too much time to pay due attention to the different degrees of 
development by which words of the same age are often distinguished from 
one another. 

126. All that has been said about the analogy between the Anglo- 
Saxon and Friesic, tends to prove that the Friesic tongue is absolutely 
indispensable in determining, as far as it is now possible, the genuine 
pronunciation of the Anglo-Saxon ; and that preceding writers, in passing 
over the Friesic, overlooked an important source of knowledge. 

127. What is less pardonable in modern Anglo-Saxon scholars, is 
their complete neglect of English in this respect. Their ignorance of the 
English, as of the Friesic, will not, I hope, be alleged as an excuse. Is 
not the English tongue, as to its descent and substance, still a genuine 
daughter of the Anglo-Saxon ? Does she not bear to this very day some 
features of her fair mother, notwithstanding her foreign ornaments ? Do 
not many Anglo-Saxon vowels still exist in Yorkshire, in Scotland, and in 
other provincial dialects of England ? May not the English alone boast 
of having preserved the true sound of the old etch (j> th), which has 
disappeared from the whole continent of Europe, so as not even to leave 
the means df forming a faint idea of the sound of this consonant, without 
the aid of the English ? Why should we consult only the Gothic, or the 
Icelandic, which is still more remote from the Anglo-Saxon ? Why 
should that which is unknown be sought amongst the unknown, rather 
than in that which is known in the remains of the old sounds of the 
language ? With a competent knowledge of the subject, and fair induction, 
I presume that no source can afford so much light in the pronunciation 
and other peculiarities of the Anglo-Saxon as the English. 

128. Of late, the accent by which some Anglo-Saxon MSS. are 
marked, is held as one of the most efficient means of ascertaining the true 
pronunciation of the Anglo-Saxon, and Wilkins and other publishers are 
to be blamed for omitting them. It is here necessary to state my opinion 
on this subject. A mark of accent, in modem tongues, may have three 
applications : — 1st. It may denote the stress of the voice on a certain 
syllable, and this is perhaps the only purpose for which the accent (') 
may be lawfully used. 2nd. But, improperly and contrary to its original 
design, it may denote the very nature of the sound of the vowel. 
And 3rd. it may be used to designate the lengthening of a short vowel, 
without altering the nature of its sound. 

In above and comfort, you hear the short sound of o, and in ghost, potent, low, we 



FRIESIC — ACCENTS IN ANGLO-SAXON. Ixxix 

have the long sound ; but in looscy the very nature of the sound is changed and varies 
from o to the French ou, and in^r to au. Suppose joo^ew^ to be noted by the accent, 
and the sound of the o to be unknown to you : what will this accent then mean ? Will 
it signify simply the lengthening of the short o ? or one of the four or five modifications 
of the sound of o ? and which of the modifications ? Or does it mean that po in 
potent has the stress? If no one can ascertain to which of these six or seven 
purposes this single mark is applied, of what use can it be in settling the pronuncia- 
tion of Anglo-Saxon? 

129. Let us endeavour to illustrate the subject by some instances 
from Caedmon, published by Mr. Thorpe. 

Is the a long in ]>3. then, {Cd. Th. p. 20, 11,) [|ja, 20, 6,] contrary to the short a in 
Frs. V. da ; Moes. than ; Dut dan then, and agree with the Icelandic >a tune^ pro- 
nounced than or tav ? Or does it denote a inclining to o ? Or does it mean a 
modified a little by i? Is a long in naman, (Cd. Th. p. 9, 11,) contrary to Moes. 
namo ; Frs. v. namme ; Icei. namn and nafn, which have all short a ? Or does it 
mean an inclination of the a to the sound of the old o in ovofia and nomen ? The same 
question may be applied to ham, (Cd. Th. p. 108, 33,) JEng. home ; and we further 
ask if the accent, in this instance, can also signify the verging of a to i (ai) apparent 
in Moes. haim abode ; Icel. heimr domus ; Hesychius d/iaSe^ iroifxevoov oUiai ; Frs. v, 
hiem homestead or the land Just around a farm-house, enclosed by a ditch. What is the 
pronunciation of engel, (Cd. Th. p. 137, 1,) written engel, p. 137, 23? If the e is long, 
then it is pronounced eengel, contrary to the pronunciation of the continental 
descendants of the Anglo- Saxdlfis, but agreeing with that of their direct posterity the 
English in their angel? What is the sound of y in >ysne this, (Cd. Th. p. 52, 6)? 
Is it long, and opposed to the present Eng. this, and Frs. v. disse, Asg. bk. 2, 3, 271, 
278, thesse; Frs. I. 2, 5, disse? Tell me also the meaning of the accent in life, (Cd. 
Th. p. 103, 4). Is the vowel only lengthened, and life pronounced liife ? Or has it 
the diphthongal nature of the^w^. i in life? Or is it perhaps like ij in Dut. lyf body? 
If the 2 in witan to reproach, (Cd. Th. p. 51, 9,) in wlte-hus torture-house, (p. 3, 21,) 
differ in its sound from i in witan to know, Frs. v. wite, like Icel. vita reprehendere , 
from IceL vit ratio, has the i then a long sound as wiitan, or like the Dut, ij in 
wijten imputare, or ei in weitan ? — What do you say of 6 in nom cepit ? Must the 6 
only be made long, as noom, or is the o modified as if united with a, as in Frs. v. 
noam? Is the 6 long in hovd shield, (Cd. Th.T^. 193,28,) contrary to Icel. bord, 
Dut. bord, both being short like Moes. baurd ? Or is it something similar to the Frs. v. 
ou, or Frs. v. oe in boerd ? What is the sound of o in wordum loith words ? Is the 
o long as in Dut woord, opposed to Moes. waurd ; Frs. v. wird ; Icel. ord ? Or is it 
pronounced like woarden, as the inhabitants of the Friesian towns speak ? Or does 
it denote the stress of the voice falling upon wor? Is on, (Cd. TA. p. 64, 1,) pro- 
nounced oon, contrary to Moes. ana [short «] and Eng. on ? Or does it agree with 
Dut. aan, Frs. v. oan ? Finally, what does the accent mean above raed narration, derived 
from short a in Moes. rathan numerare, A.-S. raedan to read 9 Is the vowel long? Or 
is some sound like Fr. ai in mais designated? As soon as Anglo-Saxon scholars 
will answer these questions, and show me the rule which regulates the application of 
this single mark, in every particular instance, I will gladly observe every accent found 
in the MSS., and in the mean time I beg to be allowed my own opinion. 

130. Far* from depreciating the use of marks of accents, I am fully 

* As the sounds were more numerous than the letters, especially in the earliest state of 
the language, when the system of the vowels was more developed, and the letters fewer, being 
only sixteen Runes, it is evident that many letters must have had a double and even a triple 



IXXX FRIESIC — ANGLO-SAXON LETTERS WERE RUNIC. 

convinced of their being indispensable in the dead languages ; but if two 
marks are used to denote the spiritus, and three the accent, in Greek, 
[' ' ' ^ -] — and these are far from conveying a just idea of the pronuncia- 
tion of this language — how could a single mark effect this in Anglo-Saxon ? 
And how is this single mark used ? It is sometimes inserted, and some- 
times omitted, even in MSS. boasting of some accuracy in this respect, as 
the MSS. of Caedmon. I will not mention other MSS., as Beowulf in the 
British Museum, Vitellius A. xv., in which three marks [' v"] are em- 
ployed with so much confusion, that the grammarian, in using them, has 
not only confounded the ideas of emphasis, the nature of sound, and the 
simple lengthening of sound, as perhaps all who have used the accents in 
Anglo-Saxon MSS. have done, but he has often misapplied the marks. 
Several attempts have been made in our day to invent proper signs, and 
to define the true force of each ; but, as if it were to increase the confu- 
sion, the two principal advocates of accents, Rask and Grimm, differ in 
the import they ascribe to the same sign. 

131. It may be here asked, whether the authors themselves made use 
of accents, or their copiers, or if a later hand added them ? Finally, 
whether it was the hand of a genuine x-lnglo-Saxon, or whether, after the 
Danish conquest, it was some writer who had a strong tincture of Danish 
pronunciation that accented the MSS. Should I live to make my intended 
inquiries on the changes of the vowels, I may perhaps throw some light on 
the subject. 

132. Since the pronunciation of the old languages depends on the^ 
sound of the letters, it is important to inquire what these letters were. 

I answer, that the old Saxon letters were Runic. Rhabanus Maurus 
has left a Runic alphabet of the Marcomanni, called by some Nordmanni 
and Northalbingii,* located on the northern banks of the Elbe, and thus 
on the same spot that the , allies of the Angles, the Saxons, inhabited. 
On comparing the form of these letters with the Runic alphabet of the 
Anglo-Saxons,t we shall perceive, on the whole, a striking resemblance, 
which is to me a convincing proof that the Anglo-Saxons brought with 
them the Runic alphabet into Britain. That these letters were once in 
common use among them, has been lately proved by the discovery of two 
sepulchral stones at Hartlepool,{ bearing Runic inscriptions. § 

sound. When, in process of time, the sounds which were sensibly distinct approached each 
other, the evil became still worse. Thus the e in red became in time the representative oi eo 
in reod arundo ; of ea in read ruber, and of ce in raed, Old Eng. rede consilium. This fully 
proves the necessity of marks to guide the pronunciation. 

* Consult Ueber Deutsche Runen von W. C. Grimm, Gottingen, 1821, in general, and 
p. 149 in particular. 

t Hickes's Gram. Goth, et Anglo-Saxonica, in the Thes. L. L. Sept. torn. i. p. 135, 136. 

X An accurate delineation of these stones is to be found in the Gentleman's Magazine, 
Sept. 1833, p. 219. 

§ Annuente Deo, Mr. Halbertsma intends to add in another publication, a second and 
third part to what is here given : the second on the sound of each Anglo-Saxon Letter — and 
the third part on the practical application of the preceding rules relative to the vowels, 
diphthongs, and consonants. 



Ixxxi 



V.~THE SAXONS, OR OLD-SAXONS. 

1. The Saxons* spoke the Old-Saxon, now called Low-German, or 
Platt-Deutsch. 

2. The German confederacy, known under the name of Saxons, 
occupied the greater part of Low, Piatt, or Northern Germany. They 
were divided into — L Eastphalians, on the eastern borders of the Weser ; 
2. Westphalians, on the Western borders of the Weser down to the 
Rhine and the North Sea ; 3. Angrivarians, situated between the 
Eastphalians and Westphalians, and the borders of the North Sea; 

4. North' AlbingianSy from the north of the river Elbe to Denmark ; 

5. Trans- Albingians , comprising the whole country from the Elbe to the 
river Oder, with the exception of those districts occupied by the Wends 
or Sorbians, near the Baltic, and in the neighbourhood of the Oder. 
These Saxons, or Old-Saxons, chiefly remaining in their ancient localities, 
retained their low, soft, or Old-Saxon dialect in great purity. The Anglo- 
Saxons, a branch of the Old-Saxons, wrote and matured their language 
in England; hence it differs from the tongue of their continental progeni- 
tors. The Old-Saxon, now called Low or Platt-German, seems to be 
conveyed down to the present day with few alterations, and those only 
such as time always produces ; but as we have no specimen of it earlier 
than the Heliand in the 9th century, we do not know the exact form of 
the Old-Saxon from which the Anglo-Saxon was derived. This Low- 
German, so called from being the vernacular language of Piatt, or Low- 
Germany, or of the common people, is, even in the present day, very 
extensive, being spoken by the lower classes in the greater part of West- 
phalia, in Hanover, Holstein, Sleswick, a part of Jutland, in Mecklen- 
burg, Magdeburg, Brandenburg, Pomerania, the kingdom of Prussia, and 
as far north as Livonia and Estonia, f 

3. The origin and ancient history of the Saxons are enveloped in much 
darkness. The Fosi mentioned by Tacitus J were most likely Saxons, 

* Those who wish for a full view of Low- German literature, may consult — Geschichte der 
Nieder-Sachsischen oder Plattdeutschen Sprache von M. Joh. Fried. August Kinderling, 
Magdeburg, 1800.— Biicherkunde der Sassisch-Niederdeutschen Sprache, von Dr. Karl, F. A. 
Scheller, Braunschweig, 1826. 

t Melis Stoke says, Verbal English. 

Oude Boeken horic ghewaghen, Old books hear I mentioning, 

Dat al tlant, beneden Nimaghen, That all the land below Nimeguen, 

Wilen Neder Zassen hiet; Formerly (was) called Low-Saxony. 

Also alst de stroem versciet So as the stream flows 

Vander Mazen en vanden Rine. Of the Maas, and of the Rhine. 

Die Seek was dat Westende sine. The Scheld that was its western end (boundary), 

Also als si valt in de zee. So as it falls into the sea, 

Oest streckende min no mee. Eastward stretching less or more 

Dan toter Lavecen of ter Elven. (Than) to the Lavecen or the Elbe. 

Huydecoper's edition, lib. i. v. 41, p. 9. 
X De Moribus Ger. cap. xxxvi. 

m 



Ixxxil LOW-GERMAN, DIFFERENCE IN. 

for Ptolemy,* who wrote in the beginning of the 2nd century, mentions 
the Saxons, and assigns to them nearly the same situation as Tacitus. 

4. The Anglo-Saxons, as has just been stated, were a branch of the 
Saxons, who, for distinction, are denominated Old-Saxons, f In the 
short account of the Anglo-Saxons J will be found most of what is known 
of the origin and progress of this people. It is there ascertained that the 
Saxons were a confederacy of different tribes united for mutual defence 
against the Romans. Two of these were the Angles and Jutes, who, in 
A.D. 449, were among the first and chief settlers in Britain. 

5. Subsequent to this emigration, the Saxons, remaining on the con- 
tinent, were in a constant conflict with the Francs. These Old-Saxons 
preserved their freedom till about a.d. 785, when, after a gallant opposition 
of thirty-three years, they were subdued by Charlemagne, who, by much 
cruelty, forced them to embrace Christianity. Charlemagne would scarcely 
have succeeded in inducing the Saxons to submit, if their celebrated duke 
Wittekind, who was never entirely subdued, had not terminated the 
cruelties of Charlemagne by consenting to be baptized. Wittekind, by 
treaty, remained in possession of the greater part of Saxony till his death 
in 807. 

6. From Wittekind, not only the German emperors of the Saxon line, 
Henry I., Otto I. and II., and Henry II., from a.d. 918 to 1024, and the 
house of Hanover, the royal family of Great Britain, but also the present 
king of Saxony, and the other princes of the house of Saxony, take their 
origin. 

7. The most flourishing period of the Platt-Deutsch was just before 
the Reformation. Luther was accustomed to speak and write in High- 
German, in which he wrote his version of the Scriptures. As Luther's 
translation soon came into general use throughout Germany, the high 
dialect of his translation was not long before it prevailed over all the 
Low-German dialects. The influence of the Reformation in preventing 
the further cultivation of the Piatt or Low-German, and in confining its 
use only to the lower orders, is regretted by all who are acquainted with 
its beauties. The most learned agree, that while the Low-German or 
Platt-Deutsch is equal to the High in strength and compositive power, the 
Piatt is much softer and richer. The true old German freedom, sincerity, 
and honesty, can have no better medium to express its full mental and 
political independence, its genuine and confidential feelings of the heart, 
than its old, unsophisticated, open, Low-German dialect. 

8. Where the High-German is obliged to employ most of the organs 
of speech to pronounce words, such as ochse ox, flachs flax, wachs wax, 
the Platt-German with the greatest ease says oss, flass^ wass. The High- 

• Cellarius, lib. II. cap. v. p. 303. 

t An^lo-Saxon, Eald-Seaxan Old-Saxons, Chr. 449, Lig. p. 14, 22. See also the Anglo- 
Saxon Dictionary, under the word Seaxan. 
: III. § 1-8. 



LOW-GERMAN — CHANGE OF LETTERS. Ixxxiii 

German pfeAfer pfeif auf, is m Piatt, like the English, piper pip up 
piper pipe up. The Low-German and Dutch proverbs are nearly all the 
same, both equally expressive, and in phraseology like English. 

As dat beer is in den man 
Is de wyshet in de kan. 

As (when) the beer is in the man 
The wisdom is in the kan. 

9. From the great extent of the territory where the Low-German is 
spoken, it may be easily conceived that it does not always assume the same 
shape. Mr. Kinderling,* in his history of the Low-German or Piatt- 
Deutsch language, names all the minute peculiarities ; here the most 
essential need only be noticed. 

10. It is generally acknowledged that the purest Low-German, or Platt- 
Deutsch dialect, is spoken in Holstein and Sleswick, particularly in the 
neighbourhood of Kiel. The Brunswick and Hanoverian dialect is broad 
and coarse. In the south-east of Westphalia, it mixes with the High- 
German, while on the borders of the Netherlands it melts into Dutch. 
The dialect of Gelderland and Overyssel preserves many Piatt forms, as 
the Dutch gout, zout, hout, gold, salt, ivood, is golt, zolt, holt ; the u, 
written w, is pronounced like the PJattand High-Ger. u, Eng. oo, 

11. The Piatt changes the High-Ger. au into oo and u ; as, auge eye, oog (o in 
no) ; auch also^ ook (o in no) ; auf up, Piatt up ; bauch belly, stomach, in Piatt 
makes buuk (the uu pronounced like the Eng. oo in wood). The High-Ger. a is 
changed into oo ; as, alt old, Piatt oold. The High-Ger. ei into y and ee; as, mein, 
dein, sein mine, thine, his, Piatt myn ; geist spirit, Piatt geest. The High- Ger. i 
very often changes into e ; as, wissen to know into weten; — ie into ee or a; as, lieb 
dear, Piatt leev, v'lel much, Piatt v'al; — i into jii ; as, immer always, P/<2if^ jiimmer. 
The High-Ger. o often changes into a long and broad a; as, oben above, bawen. 
High-Ger. alt, Piatt old, like the Eng. in signification and pronunciation. The 
High- Ger. u or ue changes into o ; as, vergniigt content, vergnogt ; — the u into o ; as, 
zu at, Piatt to ; rufen to call, roopen (pronounced ropen) ; gut good. 

12. Change of the consonants. — b often changes intoyand v, w ; as, dieb thief, deef; 
lieb dear, leev ; — ch changes into k ; as, ich I, ik or ick ; — ch into y ; as, mich me, my 
(pronounced like the Eng. me) ; — r into y; as, mir to me, my (pronounced mee) ; dir 
to thee, dy (pronounced dee) ; — ss into t ; as, wasser water, water ; — chs into ss ; as, 
flachsy?aar, flass. The ch with the s preceding is often omitted ; as, schlagen to beat, 
slagen ; schweigen to be silent, swigen ; schwimmen to swim, swimmen. The Loiv- 
Ger. in this respect has great correspondence with the old High- Ger. which avoids 
this unpleasant hissing sound in all those words where it is omitted in the Low- Ger. 
as, High- Ger. sch wester sister ; Old High- Ger. suester ; Piatt- Ger. suster ; 
Sanscrit sna&T ; A.-.S. suster, sweoster ; High-Ger. schweiss sweat; Piatt swet. 
In some parts of Holstein and Sleswick, particularly near the borders of Jutland, the 
5cA is changed into sA; as, schuld debitum ; Piatt skuld; Old High-Ger. sculd ; 
Dan. skyld ; A.-S. scyld. The auxiliary verb shall is in High-Ger. sollen ; 3foes. 
skulan, skallan ; Dut. zullen, in Pfo^^commonly schiillen, sullen, or like the Icel. skal ; 

* See notp (*), § Iv 



IxXXiv LOW-GERMAN — HELIAND, A.D. 840 TATIAN's HARMONY, A.D.890. 

High- Ger. suche changes into Piatt syke ; sicher su?'e into seker ; — t very often 
changes into d; as, teufel devil, diivel; tief deep, deep ; Gott God; gut good; tod 
death, dod ; tochter daughter, dochter ; — v, with a few exceptions, is used instead of 
the High- Ger. f; — w is used and pronounced Hke the High- Ger. w ; — z occurs only 
in a few instances, and is pronounced softer than the High- Ger. z, which in Piatt is 
mostly changed into t ; as, zu to, at, to ; zichen to pull, ten ; zwey two, twe ; zeichen 
token, teken ; zeit time, tyd ; zoU toll, toll. The High- Ger. pf always changes into 
a single p ; as, pflug plough, ploog ; pfanne pan, pann ; pflanze plant, plant ; pfund 
pound, pund; pflaume joZmwz, plum; ^ieMe pipe, pipe; pflucken to pluck, pliikken. 

13. Heliand. An unknown author, in the early part of the 9th 
century, wrote^ in alliterative lines, a Harmony of the Gospels in the Old- 
Saxon dialect. The MSS. are preserved at Munich, and in the British 
Museum, London. Some extracts were published under the name of 
Franco-Theotisc in Hickes^s Thes. vol. ii. p. 10 1, and also by Nyerup 
at Copenhagen, 1787; but the whole was well edited, and splendidly 
published, with the following title : — 

Heliand ; Poema Saxonicum seculi noni. Accurate expressum ad 
exemplar Monacense insertis e Cottoniano Londinensi supplementis nee 
non adjecta lectionum varietate, nunc primum edidit J. Andreas Schmeller, 
Bibliothecae Regise Monacensis Gustos, &c., Monachii, 1830. 

PARABLE OF THE SOWER, Mt. xiii. 3 — 6 ; Mk. iv. 1 — 4 ; Lk. viii. 4 — 6. 
Huat ik iu seggean mag quad he* gesidos mine, huo imu en erl bi- 
gan- an erdu sehan* hren corni midls handun. Sum it an hardan 
ste^* obanuuardan fel* erdon ni habda. that it thar mahti uuahsan* 
eftha uurteo gifahan. kinan eftha bicliben. ac uuard that corn 
farloren. that thar an theru leian gilag — Heliand, p. 73, 1. 6 — 10. 

LITERAL GERMAN. 

Was ich euch sagen mochte, sprach er, Genossen meine, wie sich ein Landmann be- 
gann in die Erde zu saen rein Korn mit sein' Handen ; Etliches aber auf harten 
Stein oberwarts fiel, Erde nicht hatte, dass es da konnte wachsen, 
Oder Wurzel erfassen, keimen oder bekleiben, auch ward (ging) das Korn 
verloren, das da auf der strasse lag. 

literal'english. 
What (now) I may say (jtelT) you, quoth he, my companions, how a farmer be- 
gan on earth to sow clean corn with his'hands. Some of it on hard 
stone fell, had not earth that it there might wax (grow), 
or roots take, germinate, or stick, and that corn was 
lost, that there on the road lay, 

14. Tatian's Harmony. An unknown author, about a. d. 890, trans- 
lated Tatian's Harmony of the Gospels into a softer dialect than the 
Alemannic and Bavarian : this translation contains words peculiar to the 
Old-Saxon dialect, and may be considered a sort of transition between 
Low and High-German. MSS. are preserved at Oxford and St. Gallen. 
This Harmony was first printed with this title: Tatiani Harmonia Evan- 
gelica e Latina Victoris Capuani versione translata in linguam Theotiscam 
antiquissimam per Jo. Phil. Palthenius, 4to. 1706 ; and again in Schilter's 
Thes. vol. ii. towards the end. 



LOW-GERMAN — OLD-SAXON CHRONICLE, A.D. 1216. IxxXV 

THE PARABLE OF THE SOWER. 

Matt. xiii. 3. — Senu gieng tho uz thie thar sauuit, zi sauuenne samon sinan. 4. Mit- 
thiu her tho sata, sumiu fielun nah themo uuege, inti uurdun furtretariu, inti quamun 
fugala himiles, inti frazun thiu. 5. Andaru fielun in steinaht lant, thar nih habeta 
mihhila erda, inti sliumo giengun uf, uuanta sie ni habetun erda tiufi. 6. Ufganteru 

sunnon furbrantiu uuirdun, inti bithiu sie ni habetun uurzala, furthorretun Schilter's 

Thes. vol. ii. p. 54, towards the end. 

LITERAL GERMAN, 

Matt. xiii. 3 — Sieh, es gieng da aus, der da saet, zu saen Samen seinen. 4. Indem 
er da saete, etliche (Samen) fielen nach dem Wege, und wurden vertreten ; und (es) 
kamen die Vogel des Himmels, und frassen diese. 5. Andere fielen in steinig Land, 
wo (es) nicht hatte (gab) viele Erde ; und schleunig giengen sie auf, weil sie nicht 
hatten Erde tiefe. 6. (Bey) aufgehender Sonne, wurden sie verbrannt ; und da sie 
nicht hatten Wurzeln, verdorrten sie. 

LITERAL ENGLISH, 

Matt. xiii. 3 See now, there went out (he) who there soweth, to sow his seed. 

4. While he there sowed some feU on the way, and was trodden down, and came 
the fowls of heaven and devoured it. 5. Others fell on stony land, there had not 
much earth, and quickly went (grew) up, for they (it) had not deep earth ; 6. (By) 
risen sun were burnt, and, because they had not roots, withered. 

15. An Old-Saxon Chronicle in Rhyme of the year 1216, published 
in J. G. Leuckfeld's Antiquitates Gandersh. in Leibnitii Scriptores 
Rerum Brunsv., and in Harenberg Historia Gandersh. with the following 
title, "Battle of Henry I. the Saxon, against the Huns." 

Na by der Oveker lag koning Hinrik : 

Up hov he sek an der naten nagt alse ein dagen ; 

He en shuwede dusternisse nog den ragen, 

Dog folgeden ome kume halv de dar waren — Scheller, p. 9. 

LITERAL ENGLISH VERSION. 

Near by the shore lay King Henry, 

Exposed to the wet night as a hero ; 

He did not shun darkness nor the rain. 

But scarcely half those who were there followed him. 

16. An allegorical Old-Saxon Poem, on love and fidelity, of the 
year 1231. Published in Eschenburg's Denkmale altdeut: Dichtkunst, 
Berlin, 1792. 



Mine truwe folget or alleine. 

For alien frouwen is se here, 

Ik wil nemandes syn wan ere. 

God geve or sulven sinen sagen, 

Unde dusend angele, de or plagen — Scheller, p. 13. 

LITERAL ENGLISH. 

My fidelity follows her alone. 
Above all ladies she is noble, 
I will be nobody's but hers. 
May God give her his blessing, 
And a thousand angels attend her. 



IxXXvi LOW-GERMAN THE CATELNBURG SONG, A.D. 1350. 

17. The Privilege conferred upon the citizens of Itzehoe in Holstein, 
in the year 1260, by Count John and Gerhard of Holstein, about the 
Staple-right, from Westphalen's Monumenta Inedita, &c. vol. iv., and 
Halthaus's Glossarium, under the word Stapel, p. 1730. 

Dat alle de Schiphern — ere kopenschop schuUen affleggen vnde beden den Borgeren 
vnde Gesten to Itseho de to verkopende. 

LITERAL ENGLISH. 

That all the shippers shall deposit and offer their merchandise to the burghers and 
guests of Itzehoe to sale. 

18. The Catelnburg Song, made in 1350, on the rebuilding of the 
convent of that name, published in Letzner's Chronica of Dassel and 
Eimbeck, vol. ii. 

THE CATELNBURG SONG. 

Dat kloster ward gebuwet fyn 

Edt giffit nu einen nien scyn, 

Help Godt van Himelricke, 

Dat wol geraden ore swyn 

Vnnd warden wedder ricke Scheller^ p. 36. 

LITERAL ENGLISH. 

The cloister was built fine. 
It gives now a new shine ; 
God help from heaven on high, 
That prosper well their swine, 
And so grow rich thereby. 

19. A Low-German translation of the Speculum Humanae Salvationis 
of the 14th century, published in E. Nyerup's Specim. Literat. Teuton, 
p. 446—454. 

Dit buk is den vnghelerden bereyt, 

Vnde het en spegel der mynsliken salicheit, 

Dar in mag man prouen, dor wat sake 

Got den mynschen wolde maken, 

Unde wo de mynsche vordomet wart, 

Uijde wo dat god wedder vmme heft ghekart. 

Lucifer houarde tegen gode synen heylant, 

Dar vmme warp he ene in dat afgrunde altohant. 

Kinderling, p. 296. 

LITERAL ENGLISH. 

This book is for the unlearned prepared. 

And is called a mirror of human happiness. 

Therein may one learn, by what means 

God would make man, 

And how man was condemned. 

And how God again that has changed. 

Lucifer boasted against God his Saviour, 

Therefore threw he him into the gulph instantly. 



LOW-GERMAN — LIFE OF THE VIRGIN MARY, A.D. 1474. IxXXvii 

20. A JOURNEY to the Holy Land made in the year 1356, written in 
Low-Saxon probably by Ludolfs, and copied from a MS. in 1471, by 
Nicholas Culenborch. The MS. in possession of Kinderling. 

In alien (guden) Dingen de eyn mynsche deyt edder wil vullen bringhen, schal 
dar tho bidden bevoren god, de den mynschen heft vterkoren, so blift dat warck un 
verloren — Kinderling, p. 341. 

LITERAL ENGLISH VERSION. 

In all good things which a man does or will perform, he shall before pray to God, 
who has chosen man, then this work will not be lost. 

21. A Low-Saxon epitaph on the Duke Adolph of Sleswick and 
Holstein, in the year 1459. In Arnkiel's Cimbrischen Heidenthum 
(Cimbric Paganism), vol. iii. p. 400. 

Da man schref ein Ring von d^r Taschen (cio) ^ 

Und veer Hangen van einer Flaschen, (cccc) 

Vief Duven Fot vnd negen I (xxxxximiiiii) 

Dar denk man Hartoch Adolf by, 

Twischen Barber vnde Niclas Dagen, 

O weh der jammerliken Klagen ! 

Do ward manch Og gewenet roth 

Wol um des edlen Forsten Dod — Kinderling, p. 158. 

LITERAL ENGLISH. 

As men wrote a ring of a pocket (cio) 

And four hangers (handles) of a flask, (cccc) 

Five doves feet and nine I (xxxxxiiiiiiiii) 

Thereby think men on Duke Adolf, 

Between Barbara and St. Nicholas days (Dec. 4.) 

Alas for the grievous sorrows ! 

When many an eye was red with weeping 

For the noble Prince's death. 

22. The life of the holy Virgin Mary, from a MS. of the year 1474, in 
the Low-Saxon dialect, in possession of Kinderling, partly published in 
Adelung's Magazine for the German Language, vol. ii. No. I. p. 63, and 
in the Deutsches Museum, Oct. 1788, p. 340. 

THE VIRGIN MARY. 

Se was de schoneste aller wyue 

Se was schone wyt vnde blanck, 

Se was nicht kort, to mate lanck, 

Ore Hende weren wyt gevar 

Ane aller hande wandels gar. 

Gel vnde goltvar was er har — Kinderling, p. 343. 

LITERAL ENGLISH. 

She was the most beautiful of all wives. 
She was fine white and blank. 
She was not short, (but) moderately lank. 
Her hands were of a white appearance, 
Entirely without any kind of defect, 
Yellpw and of a gold colour was her hair. 




IxXXviii LOW-GERMAN REINEKE VOS, PRINTED, A.D. 1498. 

23. A Bible printed at Cologne, 1480, folio. 

Mk. iv. 3—4. Hort, de dar seyet, de is uitgegaen to seyen. En do he seyede, dat 
eyn vyl by den wech. en de vogel des hemels quemen en eten dat. 

24. A Bible printed at Lubeck, 1494, folio. 

Mk. iv. 3 — 4. Horet. seet de dar seyet is vtghegan to seyende. vn do he seyede. 
dath ene vyl by de wech. vn de voghele des hemmels quemen vn eten dat. 

25. Mirror for the Laymen (Speygel der Leyen), printed at Lubeck, 
1496. This work is quoted in Brun's Old Platt-Ger. Poems, Berlin, 1798. 

Der leyen speygel heft hyr eyn ende, 
Den les gherne in desseme elende 
Uppe dat god dy syne gnade sende, 
Vn eynt leste dyme sele entfange in syne hende. 
De dyt boek leeth maken. vnde ok de dar inne lesen, 
Leue here god wyl den io gnedig wesen. Amen. 
Anno dm. mccccxcvi, Lubeck Scheller, p. 107. 

LITERAL ENGLISH. 

The laick mirror has here an end, 
Read it willingly in this distress 
That God to thee his blessing send, 
And at last thy soul receive into his hand. 
(He) who this book made and also those who read in it, 
Dear Lord God, be merciful to them. Amen. 
Anno Domini 1496, Lubeck. 

26. Reineke Vos,* an allegorical and satirical Poem in the Low- 
Saxon dialect, by Hinreck van Alkmar, founded and for the greater part 
literally translated from the Flemish original of Willem van Utenhoven. 
The first edition of this Low-Saxon poem was printed at Lubeck, 1498. 
In the years 1517 and 1522, two other editions accompanied with remarks 
were published by Nicholas Baumann, and printed by Lewis Dietz at 
Rostock. All the numerous subsequent editions are founded on these 
three. 

Dat erste bok. 

Dat erste kapittel. 

Wo de louwe, konnink aller deren, let utkrejeren unde vasten vrede utropen unde 
let beden alien deren to synem hove to komen. 

It geschach up enen pinkstedach, 
dat men de wolde uii velde sach 
grone stan mit lof un gras, 
un mannich vogel vrolik was 
mit sange in hagen un up bomen ; 
de kriide sproten un de blomen, 
de wol roken hier un dar : 

• See Netherland, or Holland, VI. § 17, and High-German, X. § 56, 57. 



LOW-GERMAN — REINEKK VOS, 1490. Ixxxix 

de dach was schone, dat weder klar. 

Nobel de konnink van alien deren 

belt hof un let den utkrejeren 

syn lant dorch over al. 

dar quemen vele heren mit grotem schal, 

ok quemen to hove vele stolter gesellen, 

de men nicht alle konde tellen : 

Liitke de kron un Marquart de hegger, 

ja, desse weren dar alle degger ; 

wente de konnink mit synen heren 

mende to holden hof mit eren, 

mit vrouden un mit grotem love, 

un hadde vorbodet dar to hove 

alle de dere grot un klene 

sunder Reinken den vos allene. 

he hadde in dem hof so vele misdan, 

dat he dar nicht en dorste komen noch gan. 

de quat deit, de schuwet gern dat licht, 

also dede ok Reinke de bosewicht, 

he schuwede sere des konninges hof, 

darin he hadde ser kranken lof. 

Reineke Vos, p. L* 

LITERAL ENGLISH. 

The First Book. 
The First Chapter. 
How the lion, king of all animals, ordered to be proclaimed and published a fast 
peace, and commanded all animals to come to his court. 

It happened on a Whitsunday, 
That men saw the woods and fields 
Green, standing with leaves and grass, 
And many a fowl joyful was, 
With song in hedges and on trees ; 
The herbs and the blooms sprouted, 
Which well perfumed here and there : 
The day was fine, the weather clear. 
Nobel the king of all beasts 
Held a court, and had it proclaimed 
Throughout his land every where. 
There came many lords with great noise 
Also came to the court many stately fellows 
Whom men could not all tell. 
Lutke the crane, and Marquart the magpie, 
Yes, these were there altogether ; 
For the king, with his lords, 
Meant to hold court with splendour, 
With rejoicing and with great honour, 
And had summoned there to the court, 

* Reineke Vos. Nach der Liibecker ausgabe vom jahre, 1498. Mit einleitung, glossar und 
anmerkungen von Hoffmann von Fallersleben. Breslau, 1834. 



XC LOW-GERMAN — DIALECT OF HAMBURG, &C. 1827. 

All the beasts great and small 
Except Renard the fox alone. 
He had at court so much misdone 
That he there durst not go or come. 
Who does a wrong shuns much the light, 
So did Renard, the wicked wight, 
He shunned much the king's court 
"Wherein he had a sad report. 

27. The book of the holy Gospels, Lessons, Prophets, and Epistles, 
&c. Brunswick, 1.506, fol. 

MJt. iv. 3 — 4. He ghink vth de dar seyede sin saet vn do he seyede do vil des 
sades ein deel bi de wech vn wart ghetreden van den luden vnd de voghele des 
hemels ethen yd vp. 

28. A Bible printed at Halberstadt, 1522, fol. 

Mk. iv. 3 — 4. Horet, seet, de dar seyet, ys uthgegan tho seyende. Und do he 
seyede, dat eyn veyl by den wech, und de voghele des hymels quemen, und eten dat. 

29. The New Testament, printed at Cologne, 1525. 

Mk. iv. 3 — 4. Hoort toe, siet, het ginck een Saeyman wt om te saeyen. Ende 
het gescyede als hi saeyde dat Saet, dat somige viel by den Wech, doen quamen die 
Vogelen onder den Hemel, ende aten dat op. 

30. A Bible— Lubeck, 1533, fol. 

Mk. iv. 3 — 4. Horet tho. seth, Ein sadtseyer ginck vth tho seyende. Vnde ydt 
begafF syck, jn dem alse he seyede, veil etlick an den wech : do quemen de vogel 
vnder den hemmel, vnde fretent vp. 

31. Bugenhagen's Bible, Magdeburgh, 1578. 

Mk. iv. 3 — 4. Horet tho. Seet, Eyn Saedtseyer gynck vth tho seyende, Vnde 
ydt begaff sick, yn deme alse he seyede, veil etlyck an den Wech, Do quemen de 
Vogele vnder dem Hemmel, vnde fretent vp. 

Low-German Dialects. 

32. The following are specimens of the provincial dialects, spoken in 
Low or North- Germany, as collected and written down in 1827. 

33. The provincial dialect spoken about Nienburg, 1827. 

Mh. iv. 3 — 4. Hort to : Seeth En Seyer giink ut to seyen. Un et begafF sick, 
unner't Seyen vull etlick an de Wech, do kemen de Vagels unner'n Himmel un 
fretent up. 

34. Platt-Ger. dialect spoken about Hanover, 1827. 

Mk. iv. 3 — 4. Hart tau, et gunk ein Sagemann ut, tau sagen. Und et begaf 
seek, weil hei sogte, f ellen edliche Koren en den Weg ; da keimen dei Vogeln under 
dem Himmel und fratten sei up. 

35. Platt-Ger. dialect of the Old Mark o^ Brandenburg, 1827. 
Mk. iv. 3 — 4. Horch tau, et gink en Buer up't Feld tum Seen. Un (et begap 

sick) indem he seete, fohl wat an der Side (oder : ob de Halve) ; da kamen de Vogel 
von Himmel (oder : von boben) un fratent up. 

36. Platt-Ger. dialect of Hamburgh, 1827. 

Mk. iv. 3 — 4. Hor't to : Een Buhr giing ut, sien Saat to say'n : As he nu say't, 
full een Deel von de Saat by den Wegg, un wurr von de Vagel unnern Himmel 
oppfreten. 



DUTCH — HOLLAND. XCl 

37. Brunswick dialect, 1827. 

Mk. iv. 3—4. Horet tau ! Suh et gung en Saiemann ut to saien, Un et begaf 
sik, bi den Saien, fell wat an den Weg ; do kaimen de Voggel under den Himmel 
un freiten et up. 

38. Mecklenburg-Schwerin dialect, 1827. 

Mk. iv. 3 — 4. Huret to : Sii, dar gink een Sajer uut, to sajen. Un et begav sik, 
as he sajete, feel week (wat) an de Straat, dar kemen de Vagel unner den Hewen, 
un freten't upp. 



VI.— THE NETHERLANDS, OR HOLLAND.* 

1. Hollandf is as remarkable for its origin, as for the intellectual energy 
of its inhabitants. About fifty years before the christian era, Caesar speaks 

* The author has been very anxious to be correct. He has generally cited his authorities, 
and to secure as much accuracy as possible, he has consulted his friends, amongst whom he 
ought to mention Professor Siegenbeek, with gratitude, for his kindness in correcting the 
manuscript. Those who wish for more minute information on the Dutch language and 
literature, will find ample information in the following works : — Beknopte Geschiedenis der 
Nederlandsche Letterkunde, door Professor M. Siegenheek, 8vo. Haarlem, 1826. — J. de 'S 
Gravenweert, Essai sur 1' Histoire de la Litterature Neerlandaise, Svo. Amsterdam, 1830. — 
Beknopte Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche tale, door Professor A. Ypey, 2 vols. 8vo. Utrecht, 
1812-1832. — Collot d'Escury Hollands roem in kunsten en wetenschappen, 6 vols. Hague, 
1824-1833. — Proeve eener Geschiedenis der Nederduitsche Dichtkunst, door /. de Fries, 
2 vols. 8vo. Amsterdam, 1809. — Beknopte Geschiedenis der Letteren en Wetenschappen in 
de Nederlanden, door N. G. van Kampen, 3 vols. 8vo. Hague, 1821-1826. — Biographisch, 
Anthologisch en Critisch Woordenboek der Nederduitsche Dichters, door P. G. Witsen 
Geysheek, 6 vols. 8vo. Amsterdam, 1821-1827. — Verhandeling over de Nederduytsche Tael en 
Letterkunde, opzigtelyk de zuydelyke Provintien der Nederlanden, door J. F. Willems, 8vo. 
Antwerpen, 1819. — Over de Hollandsche en Vlaemsche Schryfwyzen van het Nederduitsch, 
door J. F. Willems, 8vo. Antwerpen, 1824. — Batavian Anthology, by John Bowring and Harry 
S. van Dyk, 12mo. London, 1824. — Sketch of the Language and Literature of Holland, by 
John Bowring, 12mo. Amsterdam, 1829. — Van Wijn's Huiszittend Leven ; also van Wijri's 
Historische en Letterkundige Avondstonden, 8vo. Amsterdam, 1800. — Aenleiding tot de 
Kennisse van het Verhevene Deel der Nederduitsche Sprake, door Lambert ten Kate, 2 vols. 
4to. Amsterdam, 1723. 

t The name of Holland, as Mr. Halbertsrtia observes, is not heard of before the eleventh 
century [1064]. The meaning of Holland exactly suits the fenny and loggy soil which it 
designates. The oldest Dutch authors write it ollant. Thus Maerlant says — 
" Doe wart coninc Loduwike 
Karel die caluwe, die wel geraecte. 
Die eerst graue jn ollant maecte." 

Vol. iii. p. 13, V. 8. 
And again, " Comes de Ollandia," a Count of Holland. See Huydecoper on Melis Stoke, vol. i. 
p. 524. Look for this word in the Teuthonista of van der Schueren, and you will find 
" Beven daveren als eyn ollant, Scatere," tremble under the feet as a marshy ground. 

The word ol, in the sense of dirty or glutinous matter, mud, does not appear in Anglo-Saxon, 
but it is found in a derived signification. 01, occasionally changed to hoi, signifies calumnia. 
Wachtendonk, in his Rhyme Chronicle, observes : 

" Hollant, een nieuwe naem, die schijnt 't lant te passen, 
Alsoo het meest bestaet in veenen en moerassen." 

Mattheeus de Nobilitafe, p. 50. 



XCll DUTCH— THEIR ORIGIN, INTELLKCTUAL VIGOUR. 

of the Batavi,* the first inhabitants on record, as being located towards 
the mouths of the Rhine, between the Whaal,t the most southerly stream 
of the Rhine, and the other branches to the north : thus the dominions of 
the Batavi appear to have extended from Dordrecht to about Haarlem. 
The country is generally low and marshy, and seems formed or enriched 
by the alluvial deposits brought down by the various streams into which 
the Rhine was divided as it approached the sea. Pliny, the naturalist, 
about a century after Caesar, gives a minute description of it as a land, 
where "the ocean pours in its flood twice every day, and produces 
a perpetual uncertainty whether the country may be considered as a part 
of the continent or the sea."+ The genius and industry of men have 
prevailed. The Hollanders or Dutch have originally taken their pos- 
sessions from the dominion of the deep ; and the exercise of the perpetual 
thought, care, and industry, necessary first to raise, and then keep up such 
mighty embankments as defend them from their constant assailant the 
raging sea, has educated a people, adventurous, brave, and cautious. 
The Dutch, applying these habits to the cultivation of their intellectual 
powers, have thus taken the first rank in polite literature, and have also 
been successful cultivators of the arts and sciences. We are indebted to 
the Dutch not only for the discovery of oil painting, § but for the finest 
specimens of the art : they w^ere also the inventors of printing, || painting 
on glass, and, as some say, of the pendulum, the microscope, &c. 

* Bataver is thought by many to be contracted from Bat-auwers, that is, inhabitants of 
good or fruitful land, from bat, bet good (still found in beter), and auwe ground or country. It 
is supposed that the name is preserved in a part of Gelderland, the Betnv/e fruitful country, 
in opposition to Veluwe bad land, from vale falling, defective, and ouwe land, country. — Hist, 
of But. Language, by Ypey. 

t Caesar's Comment, lib. iv. 1 0. 

X Plin. Hist. Nat. lib. xvi. 

§ By John van Eyck, better known by the name of John of Bruges, in 1410. Korte leevens- 
schets der Graaven van Holland, door Ludolf Smids, 4to. Haarlem, 1744. 

II At Haarlem, by Laurence Rosier, about 1423, His real name was Zowrgn* Janszoon Koster, 
a celebrated citizen of Haarlem, born about 1370. He was treasurer of the city, and held 
other important offices. I once thought that Gutenburg of Mayence was the inventor of 
printing in 1440, (Elements of Anglo-Saxon Gr. p. 16); but every impartial person, upon a 
close investigation of the evidence produced in recent works, must ascribe the honour of the 
invention to Koster. Ample proof will be found in Verhandeling van Koning over den 
oorsprong, de uitvinding, verbetering en volmaking der Boekdrukkunst te Haarlem, 1816, 
bij Loosjes. Gedenkschriften wegens het vierde eeuwgetijde van de uitvinding der Boek- 
drukkunst door Lourens Janszoon Koster van stadswege gevierd te Haarlem den 10 en 11 
Julij 1823, bijeenverzameld door Vincent Loosjes, te Haarlem 1824. Mr. Jacobus Scheltema's 
geschied en Letterkundig Mengelwerk, vol. v. vi. One authority, among many others, is so 
strong in favour of Holland, that it cannot be omitted. A German chronicle of the year 1499, 
acknowledges that though Mayence improved the art, it was first known in Holland. *' Item 
wie wail die kunst is vonden tzo Mentz, als vursz up die wyse, als dan nu gemeynlich ge- 
bruicht wirt, so is doch die eyrste vurbyldung vonden in HoUant uyss den Donaten, die 
daeselffst vur der tzyt gedruckt syn. Ind van ind uyss den is genommen dat begynne der 
vursz kunst. Ind is vill meysterlicher ind subtilicher vonden, dan die selve manier was, und 
ye langer ye mere kunstlicher wurden." Item, though this art was found (out) as aforesaid 
at Mayence, in that manner in which it is now commonly practised, yet the first idea was 
taken in Holland from the Donates which were there published before that time. And from 
and out of them is taken the beginning of the aforesaid art. And is much more masterly and 
neatly performed than the former manner was, and the longer (it has continued) the more 
perfect it has become, — Cronica van der hilliger statv~ Coelle. Gedrukt te Keulen, by Johannes 
KoelholF, in den jare 1499. Gedenkschriften van de uitvinding der Boekdrukkunst, p. 437. 



DUTCH — EMINENT MEN. XCIII 

2. This small country has had more than its share of eminent men. 
It has produced an Erasmus, a Vossius, Lipsius, Junius, Grotius, 
Heinsius, Rubens, van Dyk, Rembrandt, Boerhave, van Lennep, and 
Bilderdijk. Ten Kate developed the grammatical principles which have 
been so fully and ably illustrated by Dr. J. Grimm in his Deutsche 
Grammatik. Let it also be ever remembered that this land of freedom 
has not only fostered native talent, but supported and encouraged it 
wherever it was found. Here Linnceus formed and matured his Systema 
NaturcB : here Holler studied, Descartes first received encouraging 
support, and at Gouda Locke finished his immortal work on Human 
Understanding. From Holland also has flowed a stream of classical 
erudition, conveyed in pure Latinity, and benefited the whole of Europe 
by the accurate and beautiful specimens of typography which issued from 
the press of the Elzevirs, Wetsteins, and other eminent printers. While, 
for their skill in the learned languages, their classical scholars have 
acquired European fame, the native tongue, which informed the mind 
and warmed the heart of the Hollander, has been either entirely unknown 
or disregarded by other nations, though it is a language of Teutonic 
origin, and well deserves the attention of the philologer, being one of the 
purest, most nervous, and expressive of the Gothic root. 

3. We have no evidence of the language which was spoken by the 
Batavi in Caesar's time, but, as they were a German race, it must have had 
a Teutonic origin. That this language has undergone some mutations, will 
be evident from a very short view of the political changes which have taken 
place. Such changes as affected the language arose from tribes of Teutonic 
origin ; their language, therefore, was only altered by some small dialectic 
variations, and still remained Teutonic. 

4. The Batavi were allies of the Romans, who constantly eulogize 
Batavian bravery and fidelity ; but about the end of the 3rd century the 
Batavi were much oppressed by other Gothic nations, as the Saxons, 
Salian Francs, and other hordes, which forcibly obtained the settlements 
of the Batavi. Thus the country became inhabited by a mixture of 
Germanic tribes,* which were subject to the Francic power till the time 
of Charlemagne and his sons. 

Vincent Loosjes, Haarlem, 1824. A learned Italian, Tommaso Tonelli of Florence, after 
visiting Holland, and making minute and personal inquiries concerning the discovery of 
printing, unhesitatingly declares that the invention must be ascribed to Lawrence Roster. — 
Antologia di Firenze, Vol. 41, Jan. — Jpril, 1831. 

* That the present Dutch are descended from the Batavi, is the opinion of some learned 
Dutch authors, such as Erasmus, Junius, Dousa, Grotius, and Scriverius. Grotius asserts 
boldly, [De Antiquitate Reipublicce Batavic(B, c. iii. ad finem,] that the ever-succeeding invaders 
of the Insula Batavonm were swallowed up in the bulk of the Batavian population, and that of 
course the present Dutch are the genuine oflfspring of the Batavians. Such was the im- 
portance of the Batavian support, that even the insurrection of the Batavi under Civilis 
could not prevent their restoration to the friendship of the proud conquerors of the world. 
As long as their name appears in history, the Batavi were the allies of the Romans. But 
that the present Dutch are the direct offspring of the Batavi, is still a controverted point; for the 
Batavians were exhausted by the never-ceasing levies of troops, and by the bloody battles of 
the Romans, often decided by Batavian valour, and being the last supports of the tottering 



XCIV DUTCH— HISTORY OF HOLLAND. 

5. These pagan inhabitants and the Friesians did not listen to the 
preaching of the Francic monks. The Anglo-Saxons being more allied to 
the old Dutch, their missionaries had greater success. Willibrord* with 
eleven Anglo-Saxon associates, in a.d. 692, left England, as missionaries 
to Heligoland, Friesland, Holland, Zealand, &c. They were coun- 
tenanced by Pepin, Duke of the Franks. f Willibrord exerted himself so 
much, and was so successful, that he became the first bishop of Utrecht 
in A.D. 697. J 

6. In the 1 0th century this country had its own particular sovereigns, 
known by the name of Counts. Diederik% was the first raised to the 
dignity of Count of Holland, in a. d. 903. There was a succession of 
thirty-six Counts, till Philip \l. king of Spain in 1581, who was the 
last Count. II Philip, being a bigoted catholic, and infringing the rights 
of Holland and the neighbouring states, Holland, united with four other 
provinces, at Utrecht in 1579, to resist the Spanish oppression. Soon after, 
in 1581, two other states joined, and qpnstituted The Seven United 
Provinces, which solemnly renounced the authority of Philip. William, 
Prince of Orange and Nassau, first held the dignity as Stadtholder under 
the authority of Philip. After the rejection of Philip, William was to be 
made Count of Holland : all preliminary steps were taken, and there was 
nothing wanted but the solemn inauguration, when he was assassinated at 
Delft in 1584. His sons, Maurice and Frederic Henry, held the dignity 

empire, they were crushed and almost annihilated by its downfal. The Germanic crowds of 
Saxons, Francs, and Cauchi, rushing on the borders of the Roman empire, could not suflfer 
these socii, these amici et sodales populi Romani, to dwell with them on the same spot. Afterwards 
the Insula Batavorura is reported to be inhabited by the Francs, and the name of Batavi is never 
mentioned again in all the changes their country underwent. In succeeding periods the 
Insula Batavorum was occupied by the Chamari ; [a.d. 287], by the Salii [a.d. 358], shortly after 
by the Guadi (read perhaps Cauchi) and in the reports of the battles of the Romans against 
these invaders, or of the invaders against each other, the name of Batavi is never mentioned. 
Eumenius states, that towards the end of the third century, the Insula Batavorum was 
possessed by Francic tribes. At last, about A. d, 470, the name of Batavi disappears for ever 
from history, and on this period it is justly observed by the Dutch historian VVagenaar, 
" This nation (the Batavi) seems to have been partly slain in the Roman armies, partly 
transplanted by the Romans, partly killed by foreign adventurers, or drawn away from their 
native soil, and partly blended amongst the Francs, the Saxons, and the Friesians, so as soon 
to obliterate even their name in this country." Now if the Batavi were extinguished in the 
fifth century, it will be difficult to discover much of Batavian blood in those who occupy their 
territories in the nineteenth century. See Wagenaar Vaderlandsche historie, tom. i. p. 243, 
244, 251, 295, 296. Nalez'mgen op de Nederlandsche Geschiedenis, tom. i. p. 93, 97. Inleiding 
tot de geschiedenis van Gelderland door W. A. van Spaan, tom. iii. p. 2. Eumenius Pane- 
gyricus Constant. August, c. v. Leibnitz rerum Brunswicensium Scriptores, I. 26. — The 
substance of this note is taken from a communication of the Rev. J. H. Halbertsma; it rests 
on his authority and the authors he has quoted. 

* Alcuin. Vita Willibr. Die sprachen der Germanen von Dr. T. G. Radlof, p. 4. 

t Advenissent ad Pippinum Ducem Francorum, Bd. v. 10, 11 ; Sm. p. 192, 9. 

X Historia Episcopatuum Fcederati Belgii, utpote Metropolitan! Ultrajectini, &c. folio, 
Antverpiae, 1755, p. 1. 

§ Some refer the origin of the Counts of Holland to the time of Charlemagne, Holland 
being one of the feudal grants of this emperor. "Noverint uni'versi, quod serenissimus 
Dominus Rex Albertus Romanorum semper invictus, vacantem Hollandice Principatum, quern 
Carolus Imperator olim magnus Theodorico (Diederik) Comiti concessit in beneficium feudale, tam 
jure, quam gladio ad Sacrum Romanum intendit revocare imperium. Trithetnius Chr.Hirsaug. 
ad a, 1300. Struvii Corpus Hist. Germaniae, Periodus nona, § 8, note 33, vol. i. p. 574. 

II Smids's Graven van Holland, 4to. Haarlem, 1744. 



DUTCH POLITICAL CHANGES. XCV 

of Stadtbolder in succession till 1647, when William II. son of Frederic 
Henry, was invested with this authority. 

7. The Stadtholder fled in 1795, and Holland became a more demo- 
cratic republic. In 1806, Lewis Buonaparte, by the powerful influence 
of his brother Napoleon, was proclaimed King of Holland. This prince 
abdicated in 1810, and Holland was united to the French empire. In 
1815, Belgium was joined to Holland, and the Prince of Orange Nassau 
was inaugurated King of the Netherlands under the name of William I. 
Belgium revolted in 1830. 

From these political changes the language, especially in early times, 
must have been affected. A few specimens will best show the mutations 
and the progress of the Dutch tongue ; but, before these are introduced, 
a few remarks upon its nature and character may not be useless. 

8. The distinguishing characteristic of the Dutch language,* is de- 
scriptive energy. If it be not soft and musical, it is dignified, sonorous, 
and emphatic. It has great compositive power ; all technical terms, which 
the English borrow from exotic sources, from the Latin and Greek, are 
composed by the Dutch from their own indigenous roots. Almost every 
polysyllabic word is descriptive of the object which it designates. In this 
respect the Dutch is much superior to the present English. f There is, 
however, a striking affinity between our language and the Dutch. Take as 
instances a Dutch proverb, and a short extract from Spieghel. 

A DUTCH PROVERB. 

** Als de wyn is in de man, 
Is de wysheid in de kan." 

Tuinman's Sprkw. Nalz. p. 19. 

LITERAL ENGLISH. 

As (when) the wine is in the man, 
Is the wisdom in the can Bowring. 

*' Parnassus is te wijd; hier is geen Helicon, 
Maar duinen, bosch en beek, een lucht, een zelfde zon, 
Dit water, dit land, beek, veld, stroom en boomgodinnen, 
Met maghteloose liefd wij hartelijk beminnen." 

Hartspiegel, I. 127—130. 

LITERAL ENGLISH. 

Parnassus is too wide ; here is no Helicon, 

But downs, wood, and beck, one air, one selfsame sun. 

This water, this land, beck, field, stream, and wood-goddesses, 

With mightless love we heartily admire.| 

* I cannot omit a remark on the importance of language, in designating the mental powers 
of a nation, written by a learned and truly patriotic Dutchman. " Elk volk hecht prijs aan 
het eigendoramelijke van zijn karakter, aan hetgeen, waarin het zijne zedelijke waarde, het 
uitmuntende van zijne verstandsvermogens acht te bestaan ; het moet dus, bij wettig gevolg, 
belang in die Taal stellen, welke het van alle volken onderscheidt." — Collot d'Escury Hollands 
roem in kunsten en wetensch. iii. bl. 9. 

f Astronomy is in Dutch sterrekunde, from ster a 5^ar, \i\xndie knowledge, science ; or hemel- 
loopkunde, from hemel heaven, loop a course, kunde science. — Taalkunde grammar, from taal 
language, k\mde science. — T!e\k\xnst arithmetic, from tel a number, kunst science, art. — Aardrijks- 
kunde geography, from aarde earth, rijk realm, kunde science, &c. 

X Bowring's Batavian Anthology, 12mo. London, 1834, from which interesting little work 
these translations and some other poetic versions are taken. 



XCVl DUTCH RESEMBLES ENGLISH. 

9. The correct and emphatic version of the Scriptures, which owes 
its origin to the Synod of Dordrecht 1618—1619, affords a fine specimen 
of the expressive powers of the Dutch language. It is one of the best 
established versions, and the language of this translation is well calculated 
to express the devout and dignified emotions of the Christian. 

10. The earlier the specimens of the Teutonic languages, the more 
striking are their affinity and analogy, which prove that they originally 
sprung from one source. The oldest compositions in Dutch are very 
similar to Low-German {Platt-Deutsch.) 

The first specimen of the Dutch language is taken from a trans- 
lation of the Psalms made about a.d. 800. These Low-German Psalms, 
written in the time of the dynasty of Charlemagne, were published for the 
first time by F. H. von der Hagen Breslaw, 1816.* The manuscript of 
this translation is first mentioned in a letter of Lipsius to his friend 
Schottius, at Antwerp, dated Louvain, January 14th, 1599.t Professor 
A. Ypey of Groningen claims this fragment as a specimen of the old Low- 
German or Dutch. {Nederduitsch.)X 

Psalm Ivi. 2 — 5. \ « 

2. Ginathi mi got ginathi mi. uuanda an thi gitruot sila min. In an scado fitheraco 
thinro sal ic gitruon untis farliet unreht. 

3. Ruopen sal ik te gode hoista. got thia uuala dida mi. 

4. Sanda fan himele in ginereda mi. gaf an bismere te tradon mi. 

5. Santa got ginatha sina in uuarheit sina. in generida sela mina fan mitton uuelpo 
leono. slip ik gidruouit. Kint manno tende iro geuuepene in sceifte. in tunga iro 
suert scarp. 

THE SAME IN MODERN DUTCH. 

2. Begenadig mij, God ! Begenadig mij ; . want op U vertrouwt mijne ziel. En 
in de schaduw uwer vederen zal ik vertrouwen tot dat het onregt moge voorbijgaan. 

3. Roepen zal ik tot den hoogsten God, God die mij wel deed. 

4. Hij zond van den hemel en verloste mij ; Hij gaf aan den smaad over, die mij 
vertraden. 

5. God zond zijne genade en waarheid ; en Hij verloste mijne ziel van het midden 
der leeuwen welpen. Ik sliep ongerust. Kinderen der menschen ; hunne tanden 
(war en) wapenen en schichten en hunne tong een scherp zwaard. 

11. The Flemish is so closely allied to the Dutch, that it may, 
especially in its earliest form, be considered the same language. In 
the thirteenth century, because of the flourishing state of the Flemings, 
and the care of their writers to observe great purity in their diction, and 
to express correctly the gender and inflection of words, this improved 
form of the Dutch language was denominated Flemish. Even at the 
present day Flemish appears to be nothing more than the Dutch of the 
preceding century. 

♦ Niederdeutsche Psalmen aus der Karolinger Zeit, zum ersten mahl herausgegeben von 
Friedrich Heinrich von der Hagen, 8vo. Breslau, 1816. 
f Opera omnia Justi Lipsii, vol. ii. p. 986, Vesaliae, 1675. 
X A. de Jager, Taalkundig Magazijn, No. I. p. 65, Rotterdam, 1833. 



DUTCH OR FLEMISH CHARTER OF BRUSSELS, A.D. 1229. XCVil 

12. A LITERAL COPY OF THE CHARTER OF BRUSSELS in A.D. 1229, 

from the Book of Privileges, called the Book with the Hairs {Boek met 
den Hairen) from Verhandeling over de Nederduytsche tael en Letter- 
kunde, opzigtelj/k de zuydelyke Provintien der Nederlanden^ door 
J. F. Willems, Antwerpen, 2 vols. 8vo. 1819— -1824. 

" Ic heinric bi der gratien goeds hertoghe van Brabant, Ende ic heinric sijn oudste 
sone wi doen u cont dit ghescrifte alien dengenen die nu syn ende die nacomende 
sijn. dat wi overmids vroeden rade onser mannen en der scepenen en der gesworne 
van bruesele desen coren hebben geset binnen Bruesele bi trouwen en de bi eede 
onser manne ende gemeinleec den poerteren van Bruesele Desen core te houden om 
gemeine orbore ende vordane meer in deser manieren." — Willems' Verhandeling ^ 
p. 133. 

MODERN DUTCH. 

" Ik Hendrik, bij de gratie Gods, hertog van Braband, en ik Hendrik, zijn oudste 
zoon, wij doen u weten dit geschrift aan al degenea, die nu zijn, en die nakomende 
zijn, dat wij, ten gevolgen van wijzen raad onzer mannen en der schepenen en der 
gezworencn van Brussel, deze keuren hebben gezet binnen Brussel door trouw en 
door ede onzer mannen, en gemeenlijk de Poorteren (Burgers) van Brussel deze 
keuren te houden tot algemeen gemak en voortaan meer op deze wijze." 

LITERAL ENGLISH. 

** I Henry, by the grace of God, Duke of Brabant, and I Henry, his eldest son, 
we make (to) you known this writing to all those who now are, and who are to come, 
that we, in consequence of the wise counsel of our men, and of the sheriffs, and of 
the sworn of Brussels, these statutes have established in Brussels through the fidelity 
and oath of our men, and commonly the citizens (Burghers) of Brussels these statutes 
to keep, for general convenience, and for the future more in this wise." 

13. Reinaert de Vos, an allegorical and satirical poem, is one of the 
most popular v^orks ever published. The story soon spread over the 
whole of Europe, by translations into almost every language. The poem 
was first written in the old Flemish dialect, affording a fine and very early 
specimen of the language. The Flemish manuscript is undoubtedly the 
original of which the famous Low-Saxon Reineke Vos, published at 
Lubeck, 1498, is a free translation. The old prose editions of Reineke 
Vos, printed at Gouda, 1479, and Delft, 1485, appear to be only a neg- 
ligent translation of the Flemish poem, even preserving, in many instances, 
the metre and rhyme of the original. The English version, by William 
Caxton, 1481, was made from the Delft edition. By the indefatigable 
researches of Mr. J. F. Willems, it appears that the first part of the 
Flemish Reinaert was written about 1150, and by recent inquiries, as 
well as by the preface to his modernized Flemish Reinaert de Vos naer 
de oudste beryming, Eecloo, 1834, it is concluded that Willem van 
Utenhoven, a priest of Aerdenburg, was the real author* of the second 

* Madok was not the author, for the name of such a writer cannot be found. In the 
passage where Madok occurs, it cannot be the name of a man ; for, as Maerlant observes, it 
merely designates a poem, (Hoflfmann's Horce Belg i. 21, by the fertile and learned writer 



XCviii DUTCH OR FLEMISH — REINAERT DE VOS, A.D. 1250. 

part which was composed about the year 1 250. Jacob van Maerlant, the 
father of the Flemish chroniclers and poets, so early as 1270, complains 
of the alterations and additions made by copyists of Reinaert's boerden, 
merry jests and tricks. 

14. That some of the materials of this fine poem are taken from 
French works, is confessed by Willem van Utenhoven himself: 

Daerom dedi de vite soeken, 

Ende heeftse uten walschen boeken 

In dietsche aldus begonnen — Willems' Pref. p. xiv. 1. 7. 

Therefore did he the bricks (of the fox) seek, 
And has them out of Welsh {foreign) books 
In Dutch thus begun. 

15. There have been many editions of this work. We have the 
erudite volume of Reinardus Vulpes, Carmen epicum seculis ix et xii 
conscriptum, ad fidem Codd. MSS. edidit et adnotationibus illustravit 
Franciscus Josepkus Mone^ Stuttgardice et Tuhingce, 1832 ; also 
Mr. O. M. Meon^s highly interesting edition of nearly all the parts of 
the fables and tales of the Fox, treated by Piere de St. Cloud, Richard 
de Lison, Marie de France, &c. which appeared under the title Le 
Roman du Renard, public d*aprds les MSS. de la Biblioth^que du Roi 
des XIII. XIV. et xv. si^cles, Paris, 1826, chez Treuttel et Wiirz, 4 vols. 
8vo. avec figures. The indefatigable researches of the learned Professor 
J. Grimm are published under the title Relnhart Fuchs, Berlin, 1834, 
These and other numerous editions, as well as the complaint of Waltherus 
de Coinsi, Prior of Vic sur Aisne in his Louanges de nostre Dame, and 
Miracles de la Vierge, that Renard was preferred to the reading of 
legends, sufficiently show how many pens it has occupied, and at what 
an early period this celebrated poem served for entertainment and in- 
struction. A slight comparison of all these productions with the Flemish 
Reinaert de Vos must lead to the conviction, that whatever use its author 
may have made of the works of his predecessors, he has far surpassed 
them all, and has composed a work fully deserving the praises which the 
most competent judges have bestowed upon it. It is important both for 
matter and composition ; and if it were the only interesting and valuable 
work existing in the old Dutch, it alone would fully repay the trouble of 
learning that language. This poem gives a true picture of the world, 
with all its orders, states, conditions, passions, and characters, in an easy 

Hoffmann von Fallersleben, to whom we are indebted for a very correct edition of Reineke 
Vos, from the Lubeck edition of 1498, with a valuable glossary). Besides, the article de is 
nfiver used before Dutch proper names. That all may judge for themselves, the passage is 
here cited : — 

" Willem die Madok maecte " Willem, who wrote (made) Madok, 

Daer hi dicken omme waecte About which he was much awake. 

Hem vernoide so haerde Annoyed himself so much 

Dat die geeste van Reinaerde That the actions of Reinaerde 

Niet te recht en es geschreven." Were not correctly written." 

JVillems' Reinaert de Fos, p. xiii. 



DUTCH OR FLEMISH — REINAERT DE VOS, A.D. 1250. Xcix 

and flowing versification, in a rich, powerful, and sonorous language, 
hitherto, for want of knowing its powers, not so valued as it deserves. 

16. Professor Grimm's invaluable Reinhart Fuchs is a rich mine of 
philology, history, and general information, that cannot fail to revive 
a love for the old Dutch or Flemish, which, notwithstanding all en- 
deavours to suppress it, has still preserved its pristine vigour and 
strength. In the present age, the Flemish owes much to the patriotic 
feeling and well-directed energy of a native Fleming, /. F. Willems, Esq. 
whose exertions are above all praise.* 

17. The first example is taken from GrimrrCs Reinhart Fuchs, Berlin, 
1834, printed from the Codex Comburgensis, an old Flemish manuscript 
preserved at Stuttgardt. There is still a manuscript of it at Antwerp ; 
there was also one at Amsterdam, which a few years ago was sold to an 
Englishman. t The other example is taken from the modernised Flemish 

^_ edition by J, F. Willems, 12mo. Eecloo, 1834. These may serve to show 



OLD FLEMISH. 

Het was in enen pinxen daghe, 

dat bede bosch ende haghe 

met groenen loveren waren bevaen. 

Nobel die coninc hadde ghedaen 

sin hof craieren over al, 

dat hi waende, hadde his gheval, 

houden ten wel groten love. 

Doe quamen tes coninx hove 

alle die diere, grot ende clene, 

sonder vos Reinaert allene. 

hi hadde te hove so vele mesdaen, 

dat hire niet dorste gaen : 

die hem besculdich kent, onsiet. 

also was Reinaerde ghesciet : 

ende hier omme scuwedi sconinx hof, 

daer hi in hadde cranken lof. 

Grimm's Reinhart Fuchs, p. 116. 

MODERNISED FLEMISH VERSION. 

'T was omtrent de Sinxendagen. 
Over bosschen over hagen 
Hing het groene lenteloof. 
Koning Nobel riep ten hoov' 

* Verhandeling over de Nederduitsche tael en letterkunde opzigtelyk de zuydelyke 
Provintien der Nederlanden, J. F. Willems, Antwerpen, 1819. — W^?7/eTO5' over de hollandsche 
en vlaemsche schryfwyzen van het Nederduitsch, Antwerpen, 1824, 8vo. 

f Mr. Heber at whose sale, as I am informed by the friendly communication of Mr. Willems, 
it was purchased by the Belgian government, and it is now printing under the learned and 
judicious superintendence of Mr. Willems. A warm interest for the early literature of the 
Belgians has recently been revived, not only by the publications of Mr. Willems, but by 
Theophilus, a Flemish poem of the 14th century, and other pieces, just published by Mr. 
Blommaert of Ghent. 




C DUTCH OR FLEMISH— REINAERT DE VOS, A.D. 1250. 

Al wie hy, om hof te houden, 

Roepen kon uit veld en woudeii. 

Vele dieren kwamen daer, 

Groot en klein, een bonte schaer. 

Reinaert Vos, vol slimme treken, 

Bleef alleen het hof ontweken ; 

Want hy had te veel misdaen 

Om er heen te durven gaen. 

Die zich schuldig kent wil vluchten. 

Reinaert had er veel te duchten ; 

Daerom schuwde hy het hof, 

En dit bracht hem kranken lof. — Willems, p. 1. 

LITERAL ENGLISH, 

It was upon a Whitsunday, 

When over hedge and bush so gay 

Waved the greeny leaves of spring. 

At the command of Nobel, king. 

To his court they did convene 

All whom he did faithful ween, 

Bowing with submission true. 

Then to the royal court there drew 

All the beasts, both great and small. 

But one was missing of them all, 

Renard whose misdeeds were so great 

He durst no more approach the gate : 

A guilty conscience shuns the light, 

And such was Renard's evil plight, 

That to the court no more he came. 

Where he did bear so ill a name*—Morrell. 

18. Jacob van Maerlant is the father of the Dutch Poets. He 
was born at Damme in Flanders, a.d. 1235, and died in 1300. Maerlant 
vi^as a layman, and distinguished as a philosopher and orator. He trans- 
lated several works into Dutch rhyme, such as The Beauties of Aristotle, 
of which 

MAERLANT SAYS : 

Dese bloemen hebben wi besocht 
En uten Latine in Dietsche brocht 
Ute Aristotiles boeken. 

IMITATED IN THE ENGLISH OF CHAUCER. 

All these beauties haue we soughte. 
And out of Latin to Dutche broughte, 
From the bookes of Aristotle. 

19. His famous work is, " Spiegel Historiael," or *' Historic Mirror." 
In his Leven van Franciscus, he makes the following apology for using 
Flemish words. 

* For the German of this passage, see High-German, § 56, 57 ; and Low-German, § 26. 



DUTCH — MELIS STOKE, A.D. 1283. ci 

maerlant's franciscus. 

Ende, omdat ic Vlaminc ben, 
Met goeder herte biddic hen, 
Die dit Dietsche sullen lesen, 
Dat si myns genadich wesen ; 
Ende lesen sire in somich woort, 
Dat in her land es ongehoort, 
Men moet om de rime souken, 
Misselike tonghe in bouken. 

IMITATED IN THE STYLE OF CHAUCER. 

For I am Flemysh, I you beseche 
Of youre courtesye, al and eche, 
That shal thys Doche chaunce peruse, 
Unto me nat youre grace refuse ; 
And yf ye fynden any worde 
In youre countrey that ys unherde, 
Thynketh that^clerkys for her ryme 
Taken an estrange worde somtyme. 

Bowrings Batav. Anthol. p. 25. 

20. In power, extent, and population, Holland soon became the 
predominant province ; and after the Union, the States-General was held 
at the Hague in this district : hence, the language of Holland became 
the language of the government, the learned, and the press — in short, the 
arbiter of what was to be considered true Dutch, and it is therefore often 
denominated Hollandsche taal or Hollandsch, 

21. Melis Stoke began his " Rijmkronijk," or *' Poetical Chro- 
nicle,^^ before the year 1296, perhaps about 1283, as it was dedicated to 
Count Floris the Fifth, who died in 1296.* This Chronicle was pub- 
lished in 1591, and again in 3 vols. 4to. 1772, by Huydecoper, with 
valuable notes. This last is by far the best edition. f 

MELIS store's DEDICATION. 

Dese pine ende dit ghepens 
Sendic u, Heer Grave Florens, 
Dat ghi moghet sien ende horen 
Wanen dat ghi sijt gheboren, 
Ende bi wat redenen ghi in hant 
Hebbet Zeelant ende Hollant ; 
Ende bi wat redenen dat ghi soect 
Vrieslant, dat u so sere vloect. 

Huydecoper's Melis Stoke^ b. i. v. 27. 

LITERAL ENGLISH. 

The fruit of my pains, and thoughts also, 
Sir Count Florens, send I to you ; 

• Ypey's Beknopte geschiedenis der Nederlandsche Taal, Utrecht, O. S. van Paddenburffr 
1812, vol. i. p. 334. ^ 

t B. Huydecoper Rijmkronijk van Melis Stoke, met Historie-Oudheid-en Taalkundige 
aanmerkingen, Leyden, Johannes Le Mair, 1772, vol. i. p. 7, 8. 



en DUTCH — JAN VAN HEELU, A.D. 1291. 

That you might see, and also hear, 
From whence they came that did you bear, 
And by what right, within your hand, 
You hold both Zealand and eke Holland, 
And by what right you seek yet more 
Friesland, that curses you so sore. 

Morrell. 

22. Charter of Leyden, a.d. 1294. 

In het Jaar, 1294. 
Wy Florens, Grave van HoUant, van Zelant, ende Here van Vrieslant, maken 
cont alle den ghenen, die desen brief sullen sien, of horen lesen, dat wi hebben 
ghegheven Rutghere den Scomakere, ende Kerstanse sinen broder, derdalf morghens 
Lants in eghindoem, die ligghen alrenast der Burch van Leiden, ende dat vorseide 
Lant hevet Daniel van den Warde quite gheschouden, als dat hy't held van ons te lene. 
Ghegheven alsmen scrivet vire ende neghentie. 

Handvesten der Stad Ley den, folio. Ley den, 1759, p. 478. 

LITERAL ENGLISH. 

In the year 1294. 
We Florens, Count of Holland, of Zealand, and Lord of Friesland, make known 
to all those who this letter shall see, or hear read, that we have given to Rutghere 
the Shoemaker, and Kerstanse his brother, two and a haK acres of land, in property, 
which lie nearest the castle of Leyden, and this aforesaid land has Daniel van den 
Warde quite paid, so as he held it from us in fief. 
Given, as men date, four and ninety. 

Jan van Heelu. 

23. Jan van Heelu, or van Leeuwe, so called from the name of the 
place in Braband where he dwelt. About 1291 he wrote the chronicle of 
the feats of Jan I. Duke of Braband,* which has just appeared in a splendid 
edition with this title " Rijmkronijk van Jan van Heelu, &c. van J. F. 
Willems Lid der Koninglijke Academic van Brussel. 4to. 1836. 

JAN VAN HEELU. 

Want, gelyc dat die Euerzwyn, 
Daer si moede gejaget zyn, 
Verbeiden spieten ende sweert, 
Alsoe drongen si, onuerueert, 
Jeghen die Brabantre weder, 
Dat si doen den Hertoghe neder 
Twee orsen onder hem staken. 

A VERSION IN THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. 

As the furious boare, pursued 
By the daring hunter rude, 
Teares the earth, and, raging loudlie, 
Rushes on the hunter proudlie. 
So the fierce Brabanter then 
Driues the Hertoch back agen, 
Under him two horses stagger. 

* Professor Siegenbeek's Beknopte Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche Letterkunde, 8vo. 
]S26, p. 27. 



DUTCH — EVANGELIUM, A,D. 1477. cili 

24. The Life of Jesus, an interesting and a very useful harmony of 
the Gospels, most probably formed from the Vulgate, as the parables and 
other parts are in Dutch prose, and almost a literal Dutch translation from 
the Latin of this celebrated version. This early Harmony of the Gospels 
must be interesting to divines, while the philologist will rejoice at the 
discovery of this pure specimen of ancient Teutonic. The MS., written on 
one hundred and two leaves of coarse parchment, was preserved in the 
Abbey of St. Trond, and presented to Dr. Meijer, in 1828, while he was 
Professor in the University of Lou vain. It is the opinion of his friend. 
Professor F. J. Mone, and of Mr. Willems of Ghent, as well as his 
own, that this MS. is a composition of the latter part of the 13th 
century. It was published with the following title : 

Het Leven van Jesus Een Nederlandsch Handschrift uit de dertiende eeuw, met 

taalkundige aanteekeningen, voor het eerst, uitgegeven door G. J. Meijer, Hoog- 
leeraar te Groningen Te Groningen bij Ji Oomkens, 8vo. 1835, pp. 431. 

A very short specimen from the parable of the sower will be sufficient. 

Een sayere ghinc ut sayen syn saet. en alse hi sayde so nil som dat saet neuen den 
weghe. Aldar wardt vertorden. en de voghele quamen en atent op. (Chap. 89, p. 
77, 1. 9.) 

25. Spiegel onser behoudenisse. This is one of the first books 
printed at Haarlem by Laurens Janszoon Koster ; it is in the old German 
character, and in a quarto form, consisting of sixty-two pages. The 
printing is only on one side of the leaf, the blank sides being pasted 
together, and the pages are without numbers. Many of the letters stand 
out of their connexion, and irregularly in the lines. The book has not 
any title, but its object is to illustrate Scripture history by means of wood- 
cuts. It is without date, but supposed to have been printed about the 
year 1424. The introductory sentence will be an interesting specimen of 
the Dutch language about the time when it was printed : 

SPIEGEL ONSER BEHOUDENISSE. 

Dit is die prologhe vader spieghel onser behoudenisse so wie ter rechtuaerdichet 
vele mesche lere selle blencke alse sterre in die ewighe ewichhede. Hier om ist dat 
ic tott' lerige vele mesche dit boek heb aegedacht te vgaderen (vergaderen). 

LITERAL ENGLISH. 

This is the prologue of the mirror of our redemption, such as for justification, many 
men shall teach to shine as stars in the everlasting eternity. Therefore it is that 
I, to the instruction of many men, this book have meditated to compose. 

26. EvANGELiuM, is a translation from the Latin Vulgate, a monument 
of the Dutch language, and a fine specimen of typography : it was printed 
at Gouda, 1477, in 4to. The Evangelium was just preceded by Neder- 
duitsche Bybel^ Delft, Jacob Jacobsz (van der Meer) en Mauritius 
Yemantsz van Middelborch, 10 Jan. 1477, small fol. 



civ DUTCH — JACOB CATS, A.D. 1600. 

Lk. viii. 4, 5. 
4. In dien tiden doe ene grote scare vergaderde, ende uten steden quame to the 
seide hi hi ghelikenisse. 5. Hi ghinc wt saeyen die syn saet saeyet Ende als hyt saeyet. 
sommic hvielbidenweghe. ende het wort vertreden ende die voghelen deshemels atent. 

27. Dat niewe Testament, Delft, 1524, 8vo. 

Mk. iv. 3, 4. 
3, 4. Hoert toe Siet, een sayer ginc wt om te sayen, ende het geboerde onder tsaye, 
dattet soommich saet viel bij den wech, ende die vogele des hemels syn gecomen, 
ende hebbe dat opgegete. 

28. Dat gheheel Nyeuwe Testament, Thantwerpe, 1527, 8vo. 

Mk. iv. 3, 4. 
3, 4. Hoor toe, siet, een sayer ghinc wt om te sayen. En tgebuerde onder 
tsayen, datt et sommich saeyt viel bey den wech, ende die vogelen des Hemels zijn 
gecomen ende hebben dat opgegeten. 

29. BiBLiA, tot Ley den, 1581. 

Mk. iv. 3, 4. 
3, 4. Hoort, siet een Zaeyer ginck wt om te zaeyen. Ende het gheschiede 
dat als hy zaeyde, een deel (des zaets) viel by den weech, ende de voghelen des 
hemels quamen ende aten dat op. 

30. Jacob Cats, generally styled Father Cats, was born at Brouwers- 
haven, a small town in Zealand, 1577, and died 1660. He is the poet 
of the people : everywhere practical and useful, everywhere original, and 
often sublime. Bilderdijk says — 

Goede, dierbre Vader Cats, 
Wat behelst ge niet al schats ! 

Good, beloved Father Cats, 

How much treasure dost thou contain ! 

Gij, daerom, geeft uw liefde niet 
Aen ieder die u liefde biet ; 
Maer eerst op alle saecken let 
Eer dat gij sucht of gunste set ; 
Want die te licht een vrient verkiest, 
Wei licht sijn vrient en al verliest. 

Minne en Sinnebeelden^ I. D. p. 133. 1828. 

Then love not each who offers thee 

In seeming truth his amity ; 

But first take heed, and weigh with care, 

Ere he thy love and favour share ; 

For those who friends too lightly choose. 

Soon friends and all besides may lose. 

Geluckigh is de mensch die gelt en hooge staten 
Kan hebben buijten sucht, en willigh achterlaten ; 
Kan seggen tot de pracht, tot eer, en tot de lust, 
Al ben ick sonder u, soo ben ick toch gerust. 

Spiegel van den ouden en nieuwen tijt, L D. p- 539. 1828. 



DUTCH — HUIG DE GROOT, A.D. 1618. CV 

Oh ! happy, happy he, whose generous soul can rise 
Above the dross of wealth, or pomp, or vanities — 
Scorn splendour, pleasure, fame ; and say with honest pride, 
I have ye not indeed, but yet am satisfied. — Bowring, 

31. PiETER Cornelius Hooft, born at Amsterdam, March 16tli, 
1581, and died 1647. Vondel said of him — 

Dat Doorluchtig Hooft der Hollandsche Poeten. 
Of Holland' s poets most illustrious head. 

He was also so eminent a prose writer as to obtain the appellation of 
the Tacitus of Holland. 

32. HuiG DE Groot, better known by his Latinised name Hugo 
Grotius, was born at Delft in 1583. He had extraordinary and preco- 
cious talents, and was a zealous Arminian. Grotius was one of those 
whose influence excited some of that universal attention to religion so 
prevalent in Holland. When imprisoned at Loevesteyn, he wrote his 
most celebrated poem in Dutch, " Bewijs van de ware Godsdienst,^^ 
Evidences of the true Religion.* Though he was one of the most learned 
men Holland ever produced, and is deservedly eulogised for his critical 
as well as for his historical writings, his reputation as a poet is not very 
great. One short specimen is given from the conclusion of his Evidences. 

Neemt niet onwaerdig aen dit werkstuk mijner handen, 

O des aerdbodems markt, o bloem der Nederlanden, 

Schoon Holland : laet dit sijn in plaets van mij bij u 

Mijn koningin : ik toon soo als ik kan noch nu 

De liefde die ik heb altijd tot u gedragen 

En draeg en dragen sal voorts alle mijne dagen p. 136. 1728. 

ENGLISH VERSION. 

Receive not with disdain this product from my hand, 
O mart of all the world ! O flower of Netherland ! 
Fair Holland ! Let this live, tho' I may not, with thee, 
My bosom's queen ! I show e'en now how fervently 
I've loved thee thro' all change — thy good and evil days — 
And love, and still will love, till life itself decays. 

33. Dirk Rafael Camphuysen, a disciple of the famous Arminius, 
was a native of Gorkum, born in 1586, and died in 1626. He wrote a 
paraphrase on the Psalms, and much religious poetry. One of the most 
popular pieces of the Dutch poets is Camphuysen^s '' May Morning.'''' 

Wat is de Meester wijs en goed. 
Die alles heeft gebouwt, 
En noch in wezen blijven doet : 
Wat's menschen oog aanschouwt. 

* Better known in England by its Latin title, De Veritate Religionis Christiante. Ke wrote 
this work in Dutch verse for fishermen, and sailors on long voyages. The Rev. J. Halbertsma 
says, " I have often heard old Friesian sailors reciting whole pages from this book. Grotius 
was afterwards induced by the learned to translate it into Latin, and it has been since trans- 
lated into almost all the languages of Europe, and I believe into Arabic." 

P 



Cvi DUTCH AUTHORIZED VERSION OF THE BIBLE, A.D. 1619. 

Ach ! waren alle Menschen wijs, 
En wilden daar bij wel ! 
De Aard' waar haar een Paradijs, 
Nu is ze meest een Hel. 

Stichtelyke Rymen, 1727, p. 639. 

What love, what wisdom, God displays 

On earth, and sea, and sky, 
Where all that fades and all that stays 

Proclaim his Majesty ! 

Ah ! were the human race but wise, 

And would they reason well, 
That earth would be a paradise, 

Which folly makes a hell. 

A line is often quoted from his Lawful Amusement, [Spels Mate] : 
'T is wel, goedheyts fonteyn, 't is wel al wat gy doet. 
Fountain of goodness Thou — and all thou dost is well. 

34. JoosT VAN DEN VoNDEL was bom in 1587, and lived to the age 
of ninety-one. He is the Dutch Shakspeare in his Tragedies : his 
" Lucifer " is one of the finest poems in the language, and is compared to 
Milton's " Paradise Lost." 

VONDEl's LUCIFER. 

O noit volprezen 



Van al wat leeft, of niet en leeft, 
Noit uitgesproken, noch te spreecken ; 
Vergeef het ons, en schelt ons quijt 
Dat geen verbeelding, tong, noch teken 
U melden kan. Ghij waert, ghij zijt, 
Ghij blijft de zelve. 

A FREE TRANSLATION. 

Forgive the praise — too mean and low — 

Or from the living or the dead. 
No tongue thy peerless name hath spoken, 

No space can hold that awful name ; 
The aspiring spirit's wing is broken ; — 

Thou wilt be, wert, and art the same ! 

35. The Established Dutch Version, according to the Synod of 
Dordrecht, 1618-1619. 

Mk. iv. 3—8. 

3. Hoort toe, Ziet, een zaeijer gingh uyt om te zaeijen. 4. Ende het geschiedde 
in het zaeijen, dat het een {deel zaets'] viel by den wegh, ende de vogelen des hem els 
quamen, ende aten het op. 5. Ende het ander viel op het steenachtige, daer het niet 
veel aerde en hadde : ende het gingh terstont op, om dat het geen diepte van aerde 
en hadde. 6. Maer als de sonne opgegaen was, soo is het verbrant geworden, ende 
om dat het geen wortel en hadde soo is het verdorret. 7. Ende het ander viel in de 



DUTCH — JACOBUS BELLAMY, A. D. 1780. cvii 

doornen, ende de doornen wiessen op, ende verstickten het selve, ende het en gaf 
geen vrucht. 8. Ende het ander viel in de goede aerde, ende gaf vrucht : die 
opgingh ende wies, ende het een droegh dertigh, ende het ander sestigh, ende het 
ander hondert Ivout^. 

36. As the chief object of this short account of the Dutch language 
and literature is philological, to show the close analogy between all the 
Teutonic languages, especially in their earliest form, very little of more 
recent literature can with propriety be introduced ; but the 1 7th century 
is so splendid an era, that a few remarks and extracts must be excused in 
this period, and even one or two in the 18th and 19th centuries. In the 
17th century, Holland had its heroes in De Ruiter and Tromp : its 
statesmen in Barneveldt and the De Wits. Its learned writers are Huig 
de Groot [Grotius], Daniel and Nicolaas Heins [Heinsius], P. Schryver 
[Schriverius], John Frederick Groenhof \Gvonovms\, Casper van Baerle 
[Barlaeus], Gerard Vos [Vossius],* and many other eminent classics. For 
science, Huygens, Leeuwenhoek, Ruysch, Tulf^ Swammerdam. For 
its painters, it had Rubens, Van Dyk, Rembrandt, Mierevelt, the 
Teniers, the Van de Veldes, Jordaans, Kuyp, the Ostades, Gerard 
Douw, Mieris, John and Philip Wouwermaii, Metsu, Berchem, Paul 
Potter, Pynaker, the Ruysdaels, Fan Huysem, Wynants, Steen ; and 
during this period the Universities at Groningen in 1614, Utrecht in 
1636, and Gelderland, 1648, and the celebrated school at Amsterdam in 
I629,t were established. "The age of which we speak," says the 
learned Professor Siegenbeek, " and more especially the earlier part of it, 
was, in every point of view, so glorious to the Dutch nation, that it would 
be difficult to discover, in the history of any other people, a period of 

'such resplendent fame and greatness."J 

37. " Jacobus Bellamy, born at Flushing in 1757, after gaining much 
applause, died at Utrecht at the early age of twenty-nine. § A ballad of his 
[Roosje] is perhaps the most touchingly told story which the Dutch possess. 
It is of a maid — a beloved maid — born at her mother's death — bred up 
amidst the tears and kisses of her father — prattling thoughtlessly about 
her mother — every one's admiration for beauty, cleverness, and virtue — 
gentle as the moon shining on the downs. Her name was to be seen 
written again and again on the sands by the Zealand youths — and scarcely 
a beautiful flower bloomed but was gathered for her. Novv in Zealand, 

* Of whom Vondel said — 

"Al watin boeken steekt is in zyn brein gevaren." 
Whatever is anchored in books, floated about in his brain. 

t The University of Leyden was founded in 1574. 

X Bowring's Batavian Anthology, p. 15. 

§ Some of the beautiful little poems of van Alphen ought to be given, but want of room will 
only admit of a short eulogy from the pen of Dr. Bowring. "Van Alphen's Poe/ns/w Children 
(Gedichtjes voor de Jeugd) are among the best that were ever written. They are a precious 
inheritance for the youth of the Netherlands. They teach virtue in simple eloquence, and are 
better known in Holland, than are the hymns of Dr. Watts or Mrs. Barbauld here." — Sketch 
of the Lang, and Lit, of Holland, p. 79. 



Cviii DUTCH JACOBUS BELLAMY, A.D. 1780. 

when the south winds of summer come, there comes too a delicate fish, 
which hides itself in the sand, and which is dug out as a luxury by the 
young people. It is the time of sport and gaiety — and they venture far, 
far over the flat coast into the sea. The boys drag the girls among the 
waves — and Roosje was so dragged, notwithstanding many appeals. 
" A kiss, a kiss, or you go further," cried her conductor — she fled — he 
followed, both laughing : — *' Into the sea — into the sea," said all their 
companions ; he pushes her on — it is deeper, and deeper — she shrieks — 
she sinks— they sink together — the sands were faithless — there was no 
succour — the waves rolled over them — there was stillness and death. The 
terrified playmates looked — 

Bellamy's roosje. 

De jeugd ging, zwijgend, van het strand, 

En zag gedurig om : 
Een ieders hart was vol gevoel,- — 

Maar ieders tong was stom ! 

De maan klom stil en statig op, 

En scheen op 't aaklig graf 
Waarin het lieve, jonge paar 

Het laatste zuchtje gaf. 

De wind stak hevig op uit zee 

De golven beukten 't strand ; 
En schielijk was de droeve maar 

Verspreid door 't gansche land. 

FREE TRANSLATION. 

All silently — they look'd again — 

And silently sped home ; 
And every heart was bursting then, 

But every tongue was dumb. 

And still and stately o'er the wave, 

The mournful moon arose, 
Flinging pale beams upon the grave. 

Where they in peace repose. 

The wind glanced o'er the voiceless sea, 

The billows kissed the strand ; 
And one sad dirge of misery 

Filled all the mourning land. 

^owring's Batavian Anthol- p. 75 — 77. 

38. "WiLLEM BiLDERDijK, bom at Amsterdam, 1756, and died at 
Haarlem, December 18th, 1831, was educated for the law. He was 
a giant in literature and intellectual strength, the most fertile of the 
Dutch writers. Willem Bilderdijk is the Samuel Johnson of the Dutch. 



DUTCH — WILLEM BILDERDIJK, A.D. 1830. CIX 

Bilderdijk wrote on almost every subject, but poetry was his fort, and he 
stands in the foremost rank of the Dutch poets.* 

PRAISE OF SPEECH. 

O vloeibre klanken, waar, met d' adem uitgegoten, 
De ziel (als Godlijk licht, in stralen afgeschoten,) 
Zich-zelve in meedeelt ! Meer dan licht of melody ; 
Maar schepsel van 't gevoel in de engste harmony 
Die 't stofloos met het stof vereenigt en vermengelt ! 
Door wie zich 't hart ontlast, verademt, en verengelt ! 
Gij, band der wezens ; en geen ijdel kunstgewrocht, 
Door arbeidzaam verstand met moeite en vlijt gezocht, 
Maar goddelijke gift, met d' ademtocht van 't leven, 
Aan 't schepsel ingestort zoo verr' er geesten zweven. 

Bilderdijk's De Dieren, p. 19. 

LITERAL ENGLISH. 

Ye flowing sounds, in which, with breath pour'd forth, 

CLike Godlike light in rays) the soul imparts 

Itself! surpassing light or melody; 

Deep feeling's offspring, in close harmony, 

Spirit and matter blendmg and uniting ! 

Thro' which the soul, unburden'd, breathes and lives 

The life of angels ! Thou tie of beings ; 

No vain attempt of human skill art thou. 

By toilsome minds with pains and care sought out. 

But heaven's own gift, breathed with breath of life. 

Shed thro' creation, far as mind pervades Morrell. 

39. The services of Professor Siegenbeek, in restoring and remodelling 
the Dutch language, have been so highly estimated by his country, that 
his system of Orthography obtained the sanction of the Dutch government 
in 1806. Since this time, for the sake of uniformity in expressing words, 
it is required that every public document should be written in strict 
accordance with the Professor's orthographical system. 

40. A free translation of the whole Scriptures, in the modern Dutch 
style and orthography, was made by the learned and eloquent Professor 
van der Palm, of Leyden. It was published in 4to. in 1825; and, 
though it has not the sanction of the States-General, nor is it adopted in 
the churches, it is greatly esteemed, and in general use. The following 
extract may serve as a specimen. 

Mk. iv. 3—8. 

3. Hoort toe! ziet, een zaaijer ging uit om te zaaijen. 4. En het geschiedde, 
terwijl hij zaaide, viel een deel (van het zaad) op den weg ; en de vogelen des hemels 

* Though living authors scarcely come within the scope of this work, Tollens cannot be 
omitted. He is styled, "the most agreeable, the most popular living poet of Holland." 
An edition of ten thousand copies of three volumes of his poetry was promptly sold among 
a population of no more than three millions of people. This itself is no small praise, and 
implies no small merit, to have so happily touched the feelings of an entire nation. His power 
is descriptive, his characteristic is originahty.— See more in Dr. Bowring's Sketch, p. 98. 



ex DUTCH VAN DER PALM S VERSION. 

kwamen, en aten het op. 5. En een ander deel viel in steenachtigen grond, waar het 
niet veel aarde had ; en het schoot terstond op, omdat het geen diepte van aarde had. 
6. Doch toen de zon opging, verbrandde het, en omdat het geen' wortel had, verdorde 
het, 7. En een ander deel viel onder de doornen ; en de doornen wiessen op en 
verstikten het ; en het bragt geen vrucht voort. 8. En een ander deel viel in de 
goede aarde, en bragt vrucht voort, die uitbottede en opwies; en het een droeg 
dertig, en het andere zestig, en het andere honderd. 

41. The established version of the Scriptures, made according to the 
regulations . of the Synod of Dort, 1618-1619, and first published at 
Ley den in 1637, had its orthography modernised, according to the system 
of Professor Siegenbeek, by the Rev. Henry Cats, minister of the Dutch 
Reformed Church at Leyden. Mr. Cats dying before the work veas 
completed, it was finished by Professor van Hengel, and published in 4to. 
by Thieme of Arnhem, in 1834. The same passage is selected as in the 
last paragraph, for facility of comparison with Professor van der Palm's 
translation, and with the old orthography in the 34th paragraph. 

Mk. iv. 3—8. 

3, Hoort toe! ziet, een zaaijer ging uit om te zaaijen. 4. En het geschiedde in het 
zaaijen, dat het eene [deel zaads'] viel bij den weg ; en de vogelen des hemels kwamen, 
en aten het op. 5. En het andere viel op het steenachtige, waar het niet veel aarde 
had ; en het ging terstond op, omdat het geene diepte van arde had. 6. Maar als de 
zon opgegaan was, zoo is het verbrand geworden, en omdat het geen' wortel had, 
zoo is het verdord. 7- En het andere viel in de doornen, en de doornen wiessen op, 
en verstikten hetzelve, en het gaf geene vrucht. 8. En het andere deel viel in de 
goede aarde, en het eene droeg dertig, en het andere zestig, en het andere honderd 
[voudig]. 

42. It is difficult to pass over many of the fine passages to be found in 
Feith'sOld Age, [Ouderdom] ; The Grave, ^Het Graf], &c.: Helmers's 
Dutch Nation, [Hollandsche Natie], Sec; and also in the works of many 
of the old as well as the modern Dutch poets. It would be gratifying to 
name their divines, philosophers, and those numerous individuals excelling 
in science and literature; but even a list of their names would far exceed 
the limits of this brief sketch. A reference can therefore, only be made 
to those, who have professedly treated the subject more fully.* Enough 
has been probably advanced to prove that Holland has cast more than 
her share into the intellectual treasury of the world, and this must suffice 
for the present. 

Dutch Dialects. 

43. There are several dialects of the Dutch language, such as the 
Flemish, the Gelderic, &c. The Friesic need not be here named, as the 
peculiarities of the country and town Friesic are both pointed out and 
compared with Anglo-Saxon in IV. page xxxv. 

* See note to § 1, page xci. 



DUTCH DIALECTS — FLEMISH. CXI 

44. The modern Flemish dialect, according to Mr. J, F. Willems* 
is distinguished from the Dutch, — First, by a too far-fetched inclination to 
express the distinctions and shades of all varying sounds and significations 
of words, united with a careful endeavour to preserve in the pronunciation 
the radical syllable. For this reason the Flemings not only double the 
long e and o, but when doubled they also accentuate them, as ee, eS, and 
00. They endeavour, in all inflections of words, constantly to write ae 
or ee, as plaegen to plague; verdraegen, beklaegen, ne^men, geeven, 
graeven ; from plaeg plague, verdraegt he agrees, klaegt he complains. 
They also try to distinguish, by orthography, all words of the same sound, 
but different in signification; as, wagen to hazard, waegen to weigh, 
leven li/e, leeven to live. They distinguish compound words by always 
uniting them with a hyphen, as spraek-konst, grond-word, haeg-appel-boom, 
aen-nemen, aen-te-nemen. 

Secondly. — The long sound of the vowels a, e, i, and u, is expressed 
by immediately adding an e in syllables where the vowel is followed by 
a consonant. Some words are exceptions ; as, vader father ; nader 
nearer; \ergaderen to gather ; kamer chamber ; averechts preposterous ; 
where the single vowel is considered as sufficient. The y is considered 
a real vowel, and thus the Flemings have a vowel more than the Dutch. 
The is not lengthened by the additional e. These two letters are pro- 
nounced short, like the French ou, or the German u. 

Thirdly. — By the particular pronunciation of the ei or ee in beer, Dut, 
bier beer; peerd, Dut. paard a horse; peerel, Dut. paarel or parel 
a pearl; geerne, Dut. gaarne, gaarn willingly, readily ; rechtveerdig, 
Dut. regtvaardig righteous, just ; weerd, Dut. waard dear. To 
this pronunciation the Dutch object, and call it the blaetende, bleating 
sound, though in reality it appears to be the true pronunciation of the 
Low-Saxon. 

The modernised Flemish version of the extract from Reinaert de Vos 
will serve as a specimen. f 

45. The dialect of Gelderland will be sufficiently illustrated by the 
following extract, which will serve both as a specimen and an explanation 
of its peculiarities. Slichtenhorst, the writer, lived in the 16th century. 

GELDERSCHE TAAL. 

Geene spraek van Nederland, en koemt de Duitsse moeder-tael naerder dan de 
Geldersse, als de welke 't eenemael mannelijk is, en de woorden volkomen wtbrengt : 
wtgezonderd daar de ingezeetenen aen 't Sticht van Utrecht of Holland belenden, die 
een hotter tael hehhen dan de hinnen-landers. Want daar men hier golt, holt, zolt, 
zeght, gebruijken de anderen gout, hout, zout, breekende de woorden op zijn Frans, 
die de letter /, vooral in woorden van 't Latijn herkomstigh, ofte smelten ofte 't eene- 
mael verzwijghen, gelijk in hault, altus, hoogh, assault en andere meer is te speuren 

Slichtenhorst, over de Geldersche Taal Geldersche Volks-Almanak, 1835, p. 69. 

* Over de Hollandsche en Vlaemsche Schryfwyzen van het Nederduitsch, Antwerpen, 
1824, pp. 66. . ^ ' 

t See § 17, page xcix. 



CXU DUTCH DIALECTS — GELDERLAND. 

LITERAL ENGLISH. 

' {Dialect of Gelderland.) 

No dialect of the Netherlands comes nearer to the German mother-tongue than 
that of Gelderland, which is singularly strong, and pronounces the words fully» 
except where the inhabitants border the provinces of Utrecht or Holland, who have 
a blunter dialect than those of the interior. For where we here (in Gelderland) say, 
golt goldy holt wood, zolt salt, the others use gout, hout, zout, pronouncing the 
words according to the French, who, particularly in words derived from the Latin, 
either melt (soften) or entirely omit the letter /, as in hault altus high, assault, and 
more that may be found. 

Non vox, sed votum ; 
Non musica chordula, sed cor ; 
Non clamor, sed amor, 
Clangit in aure Dei. 

Niet de stemmen klaer en soet, 
Maar de suchten van 't gemoet ; 
Niet muzijk van 't snaeren-spel, 
Maar het hart oprecht en wel ; 
Niet 't geroep, maar liefde en min 
Klinkt tot Godes ooren in. 

Sluijter, 1660, Geldersche Volks-Almanak, 1835, p. 124. 

46. The peculiarities of the Overijssel Dialect, with many useful 
documents, and a Dictionary of the chief words, are given by the Rev. 
J. H. Halbertsma in Overijsselche Almanak voor Oudheid en Letteren, 
1836, published by J. de Lange, at Deventer. Want of room prevents 
quotations from this very interesting work. 



VII.— THE GOTHS.* 



1. The Goths were of Asiatic origin, and it is supposed that they 
formed a part of the second wave of European population. Many cen- 
turies before our era the Goths must have been in Europe, though 
Pytheas,t the famous navigator born at Marseilles, is the first who 

* That great pains have been taken to give an accurate and succinct account of the Goths 
and their literature, will be evident, when it is known that, besides many alterations, this 
short and still imperfect abstract has been transcribed four times. A large volume might 
easily have been written ; the difficulty has been in attempting to give a clear epitome. 
Those who wish for further information may consult " Historia Gothorum, Vandalorum, et 
Langobardorum ab Hug. Grotio, partim versa, partim in ordinem digesta. Prsemissa sunt 
ejusdem prolegomena, ubi Regum Gothorum ordo et chronologia cum elogiis. Accedunt 
nomina appellativa, et verba Gothica, Vandalica, Longobardica, cum explicatione. Amstel- 
odami, 1655, in gr. 8vo." This is an invaluable work. See also the works cited in the following 
abstract. There is an article which deserves attention in Schilter's Thesaurus, vol.iii. p. 395, 
sub voce Gothe. 

t Strabo \, 23. 



GOTHIC — THE GOTHS WERE GERMANS. CXlll 

mentions them by name. Strabo* assures us, that Pytheas, about 325 
before Christ, undertook a voyage to explore the amber coasts in the 
Baltic. He sailed to Thule, probably Tellemark on the west borders of 
Norway, then turned southward and passed the cape of Jutland, and 
proceeded eastward along the coasts of the Guttones and Teutones. If 
credit be given to this account of Pytheas, the Goths, at this early period, 
had extended far over Europe, and had arrived on the coast of the Baltic. 
We know, upon the better authority of Tacitus,t who wrote with great 
precision towards the end of the first century in the christian era, that in 
his time the Goths were near the mouth of the Vistula. 

2. According to the opinion of many Scandinavian antiquaries, the 
Goths who overran the Roman empire, came from Scandinavia or 
Sweden, -J but Tacitus § speaks of no Goths in Scandinavia, and only 
of Suiones, which is the same name that the Swen-skar (Swedes) apply 
to themselves at the present day. It is therefore more probable, as some 
learned Swedes || acknowledge, that when the Goths wandered towards 
the west and south, some of them, in early times, crossed the Baltic and 
established themselves in the south of Sweden and the island of Goth- 
land.1I We know from Tacitus, just cited, that the Goths were in 

* Strabo, the Greek geographer, who died about a. d. 25, is the chief writer recording 
particulars and giving quotations from the lost works of Pytheas. Strabo I. 63; II. 114. — 
Pliny also mentions Pytheas, Nat. Hist, xxxvii. 2 ; iv, 13. 
t Annal. II. 62; De Mor. Ger. 43. 

X They support their assertion by the traditions of Jornandes. Cassiodorus, the learned 
minister of Theodoric, the Gothic king of Italy in the 6th century, was the first who attempted 
to \vrite a history of the Goths. This history consisted of twelve books, compiled from old 
chronicles and songs. The work of Cassiodorus is lost, and all that remains is an imperfect 
abridgment by Jornandes, (Jornandes de Getarum sive Gothorum Origine, et rebus gestis, 
ad Castalium, cap. 3, 4, 13, &c., Leyden, 1595, 8vo. ; Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the 
Roman Empire, chap. 10) bishop of Ravenna, who states that the Goths were from Scan- 
dinavia, or the present Sweden, Norway, and Denmark. They traced the genealogies of 
their hereditary princes up to the race of Odin, called ^sir, [assir pi. of the Icel. as an Asiatic; 
vir Asiaticus, — Jornandes, 3, &c. ; Ynglinga Saga. Wheaton Hist. p. 110,]or Asiatic Odin, and 
his followers are supposed to have come from the banks of the Tanais or Don. At the 
present day we find in Sweden, East, West, and South Gothland, and the island near the 
east coast of Sweden is still called Gothland. From the south of Sweden the Goths crossed 
the Baltic, and settled on the coast of Prussia, about the mouth of the Vistula. We are 
informed by some fragments of Pytheas, that he, being in search of the amber coasts, sailed 
about 6,000 stadia along the coasts of the Guttones and Teutones, through the gulph of 
Mentonomon [Kattegat, Belt, &c.] to Baltia, the Baltic. {Plin. Hist. Nat. xxxvii. 2; 
iv. 13 3 Wachter's Gloss. Ger. Pref. § XLV.) About the time of the Antonines, a.d. 180, 
[Ptolemy II.] from some unknown cause or other, the Goths, in vast hordes, leaving the mouth 
of the Vistula, and other parts, followed the course of this river, and migrated to the northern 
coast of the Black Sea : hence they made inroads into the Roman empii-e. In this way 
Gibbon, following Jornandes, brings the Goths in contact with the Romans. — See Decline and 
Fall of the Roman Empire, chap. 10. 

§ Tacitus de Mor. Ger. 44, 45. See the judicious dissertation of Mr. Grdberg de Hemso, 
written in Italian and entitled "Su la Falsita dell' Origine Scandinava data di Popoli detti 
Barbari chi distrussero I'lmpero di Roma," Pisa, 1815. 

II A. W. de Schlegel sur I'Origine des Hindous. — Transactions of the Royal Society of Litera- 
ture, vol. II. part ii. p. 408. 

•IJ In the preface to "Historisch Antiquarische Mitheilungen," published by the Copenhagen 
Royal Society of Northern Antiquities, it is said, that " The Goths were found not only in 
Scandinavia, but Germany ; they are, therefore, properly designated by Gotho-Germans 
(Gotho-Germanen). The old northern Sagas acknowledge that Odin and his Asas first 
occupied and peopled Saxony, Westphalia, and different other German provinces, before they 
founded their government in Denmark and Sweden." — Pref p. iii. 1835. 



CXIV GOTHIC — EAST AND WEST GOTHS. 

Pomeralia and Prussia, near the Vistula, about a.d. 80, and in the time of" 
the Antonines, a.d. 1 80. The Vandals and Burgundians are considered as 
belonging to this race. After conquering different smaller nations in the 
east of Germany and the present Poland, the Goths, sword in hand, opened 
themselves a way to the Lower Danube. They took possession of all the 
northern coasts of the Black Sea, and made inroads into the neighbouring 
countries, particularly into Dacia, where they settled, and divided them- 
selves into the East and West Goths.* TheVisi-Gothi, Visigoths, or, as 
Jornandes calls them, Vesegothae, and others Wisigothi or West-Goths, 
had their name from their western situation. For the same reason the 
East-Goths were denominated Ostro, or Austro-Gothi. 

3. The Goths having conquered and occupied the country on the north 
of the Black Sea, where, according to Herodotus, the Scythians had dwelt, 
were often called Scythians by Greek and Roman writers, to the great con- 
fusion of history. 

4. The West-Goths must have been numerous on the west of the Black 
Sea, and have made inroads into the Roman empire, as we find them so 
powerful in Thracia in the time of Decius, a.d. 250, that they took and 
sacked Philippolis.f Even before this period, about a.d. 180, these 
Goths had so far increased as to occupy Dacia, the present Transilvania, 
Moldavia, Wallachia, and Bessarabia. 

5. The Getae, a Thracian race, who had previously inhabited Dacia, 
were, with the Romans still remaining in the country^ amalgamised with 
their conquerors, the West-Goths. As the East-Goths had been con- 
founded with the Scythians, their predecessors, so there are some who 
suppose that the West-Goths and the Getae were the same nation, 
because they found these Goths occupying the same territory, formerly 
inhabited by the Getae. Jornandes, by birth a Goth, probably with the 
view of exalting his nation by attributing to them all that was done by the 
Getae, makes the Goths and the Getae to be the same people. Had he 
only been guided by the languages of these nations, he would have seen 
that the Getae must have a different origin to the Goths. J 

6. When the West-Goths settled in Dacia, they not only found rem- 
nants of Roman civilisation, but Christianity established.! The mild but 
powerful influence of the christian religion soon prevailed over their cruel 
heathen rites ; for as early as the Council of Nice, in a. d. 325, the 

* Zahn's Ulphilas, p. 2 ; Adelung's Mlteste Geschichete der Deutscben, p. 202. 

f Ammianus, 31, 5; Aurelius Victor, 29. 

X Herodotus, Strabo, and Menander who was a Getian by birth, and many others, declare 
that the Getae were of Thracian origin. Stephanus of Byzantium says expressly "TETia, rj 
X(^pa T(vv TsTwv. Eo-Tt oe QpaKiKov edvos Getia, the country of the Getae. It is a Thracian 
nation. — Sub voce TETIA, p. 207; Virg. Mn. iii. Z5\ Ovid. Trist. v. 7; Epist. Pont. lib. iv. 
Ep. xiii. 17. Strabo declares that the Getae and Thracians spoke the same language, and that 
the Thracian and the Gothic or Old-German are quite distinct languages. See Zahn, p. 4, 
note a. In Adelung's Geschichte der Deutscben there is a long list of Thracian words, not one 
of which has the least resemblance to German, p. 284—290. 

§ Sbzomen's Eccl. Hist. lib. ii. 6. 



GOTHIC — EXTENT OF EAST AND WEST GOTHS. CXV 

cliristian Goths had their bishop, jTheophilus, whose signature appears 
in the records of this celebrated council. The Ostro or Eastern Goths, 
having no such advantages, remained for a long time heathens. In the 
latter part of the 4th century, the whole of the Goths were governed by 
Ermanneric, one of their greatest conquerors, who subdued the western 
nations, and extended his empire from the river Don, through Sarmatia 
to the Vistula, and even to the Baltic. 

7. The Visigoths or West-Goths being greatly oppressed by the Huns 
from the north of China or Tartary, induced Ulphilas,* their bishop, to 
implore the protection of the Roman emperor, Valens, in a.d. 376. He 
pleaded their cause successfully, and the province of Moesia was assigned 
to them ; their innumerable tribes were then permitted to pass over the 
Danube. t It was from the residence which Valens gave them in Moesia, 
now Servia and Bulgaria, south of the Danube, that the Visigoths obtained 
the name of Moeso-Goths. Considering themselves oppressed in Moesia, 
the Goths revolted, gained several victories over the Romans, and at last 
under Alaric desolated the Illyrian provinces, and in a.d. 409 took and 
pillaged Rome. In 412 they established themselves in the south of 
France, and crossing the Pyrenees, fixed the seat of their empire in 
Spain, where they reigned nearly three hundred years. They were first 
weakened by the Francs, and finally subdued by the Saracens. 

8. The Ostro or East-Goths, though they applied to Valens, were not 
permitted to enter Moesia, and were therefore subjugated by the Huns ; 
but after liberating themselves, they embraced Christianity, and were 
received into Pannonia in a.d. 456, following the Visi or West-Goths 
into Moesia. The emperor Theodoric the Great, the hero of this nation, 
conquered Italy, and in a, d. 493 became the founder of a new monarchy 
at Ravenna. The Gothic government continued in Italy till the year 554, 
when it was terminated by Belisarius and Narsus under Justinian, emperor 
of the east. Cassiodorus, J the minister of Theodoric, wrote a history of 
the Goths, which was abridged by his secretary Jornandes. 

* This name has great variety in its orthography: we find Ulphilas, Urphilas, Urphi- 
lus, Gilfulas, Gudillas, Galfilas, Gulfilas, Ulphias, Ulpias, Gulfias, Hulfias, Wuifila, &c. 
It is written DSb^^sblS Aulpilas by R. Abraham in his work entitled Q'>"n^:in ^l^btt?* 
It is inflected nom. Ulphilas ; g. Ulphilae, exactly as iEneas, ^neae, &c. after the Greek form 
Oi/Xc^tXas {Socrates' Hist. Eccles. II. 41 ; IV. 33 ; Theodoret. I V. 33 ; Epist. 104 ; Philost, II. 5 ; 
Sozomen Hist. Eccles. VI. 37.) Some of the most eminent German scholars have recently 
adopted a new orthography, or as they affirm, reverted to the old Teutonic spelling, and 
write it Ulfila from Wuifila a little wolf, formed from Moes. wulfs a wolf, {Mt, vii. 15,) in the same 
manner as magula puerulus, {Jn. vi. 9,) from magus puer, and the diminutive fiskila piscicuhis, 
from the root fisk piscis. {Grimm's Deut. Gramm, vol. iii. p. QQQ). This, according to the 
Moeso-Gothic idiom, appears quite correct as it regards the termination; but if a close 
adherence to the Moeso-Gothic word be followed, it ought to be as precise in the commence- 
ment as in the termination, and to be written Wuifila, not Ulfila. Rather than adopt the new 
mode, which appears incorrect in this particular, the old spelling is here retained, and the 
word is written Ulphilas 0iJX<^iA.a9, as received from the Greek ecclesiastical historians. 
Canzler, in his Deutsche For und Zunnamen, thinks that Ulfila, Hulfias, &c. has some 
affinity with ^.-S. ulph: Plat, hiilp: Dw^hulp: Ger. hulfe: Old-Ger. hilfa: Dan, hjaelp : 
Swed. hjelp : Icel. hialp — all denoting help, aid, assistance. Then, with the addition of the 
diminutive ila, we have Hulpila, or Ulfila a little help, infantine aid. 

t Jornandes, 25, 26. X See § 2, note (+). 



CXVl GOTHIC — ULPHTLAS AND HIS TRANSLATION. 

9. Ulphilas,* born of Cappadocian parents,! was made bishop of the 
West or Moeso-Goths about a.d. 360. He was so eminent in his talents, 
learning, and prudence, that he had the greatest influence amongst the 
Goths, and thence originated the proverb "Whatever is done by Ulphilas 
is well done." They received with implicit confidence the doctrines of the 
gospel which he enforced by a blameless life. That he might lead them 
to the fountain of his doctrine, he translated the Bible from the Greek into 
the language of the Moeso-Goths, between a.d. 360 and 380. Those 
who are best acquainted with the subject X declare that the language of 
this ancient translation ought not to be called Moeso-Gothic, as this name 
leads to the erroneous supposition that this dialect was formed in Moesia. 
The language of Ulphilas's version is, in fact, the pure German of the 
period in which it was written, and which the West-Goths brought with 
them into Moesia. The term Moeso-Gothic is still retained in this work, 
as it at once shows that the words to which Moes. or Moeso-Gothic is 
applied are taken from the version of Ulphilas, while however the Moeso- 
Gothic is considered as the earliest German dialect now in existence. 

10. Several fragments of Ulphilas's celebrated translation have been 
discovered. The most famous is The Codex Argenteus, or Silver Book, 
so called from being transmitted to us in letters of a silver hue. The 
words appear to be formed on vellum by metallic characters heated, and 
then impressed on silver foil, which is attached to the vellum by some 
glutinous substance, somewhat in the manner that bookbinders now letter 
and ornament the backs of books.§ This document, containing fragments 
of the four gospels, is supposed to be of the 5th century, and made in 
Italy. 1 1 It was preserved for many centuries, in the monastery of Werden 
on the river Rhur, in Westphalia. In the 17th century it was transmitted 
for safety to Prague ; but Count Konigsmark, taking this city, the Codex 
Argenteus came into the possession of the Swedes, who deposited it in the 
library at Stockholm. Vossius, in 1655, when visiting Sweden, became 
possessed of it, and brought it to Holland ; but PufFendorf, as he travelled 
through Holland in 1662, found it in the custody of Vossius, and purchased 
it for Count de la Gardie, who, after having it bound in silver, presented 
it to the Royal Library at Upsal, where it is still preserved. 

11. This mutilated copy of the Four Gospels was first published with a Glossary 
by Junius and Marshall, in 2 vols. 4to. at Dort, 1665, from a beautiful facsimile 
manuscript made by Derrer, but now lost. There are two columns in each page, 
Gothic on the left column, and Anglo-Saxon on the right, both in their original 
characters, the types for which were cast at Dort. The same book, apparently 

* See § 7, note (*). 

t Theodoret, iv. 37 ; Sozomen, vi. 37 ; Socrates, iv. 33. 

X See Grimm's Deutsche Grammatik, 1st edit. 1819, pref. xlv. xlvi. 

§ Ihre's Ulphilas lllustratus, edited by Biisching, Berlin, 1773 ; Meerman's Origines Typo- 
graphicse, Hag. Coniit. 2 vols. 4to. 1765, vol. i. p. 2, cap. 2. 

II In Italia scriptus fuit — Ulphilse partium ineditarum in Ambrosianis Palimpsestis ab Angelo 
Maio repertarum Specimen, 4to. pp. 1 — 36. Mediolani, 1819, Pref. p. iv. 12. 



GOTHIC TITLE-DEED AT NAPLES. CXVll 

published with new titles, and a reprint of the first sheet in Vol. II. or Glossary, 
appeared again at Amsterdam in 1684. Stiernhelm sent forth an edition in Gothic, 
Icelandic, Swedish, German, and Latin, 4to. Stockholm, 1671. A new one was 
prepared by Dr. Eric Benzelius, and published by Lye, 4to. Oxford, 1750, with a Latin 
translation, and notes below the Gothic : a short Gothic Grammar is prefixed by 
Lye. A learned Swede, Ihre, a native of Upsal, and afterward Professor, in 1753 
favoured the literati with his remarks upon the editions of Junius, Stiernhelm, and 
Lye. He had constant access to the Codex, and his criticisms and remarks upon the 
editors' deviations from it are very valuable. All Professor Ihre's treatises on the 
Gothic version, and other tracts connected with the subject, were published under 
the following title : — J. ab Ihre scripta versionem Ulphilanam et linguam Moeso- 
Gothicam illustrantia, edita ab Anton. Frid. Biisching, Berolini, 4to. 1773. The 
Codex was again prepared and printed in Roman characters, after the corrected text 
of Ihre, with a literal interlineal Latin translation, and a more free Latin version in 
the margin, with a Grammar and Glossary by F. K. Fulda. The Glossary revised 
and the text corrected by W. F. H. Reinwald, published by J. C. Zahn, Weissenfels' 
and Leipzig, 4to. 1805. One short specimen will be sufficient. 

THE PARABLE OF THE SOWER. 

Mk. iv. 3, 4 Hauseith. sai. urrann sa saiands du saian fraiwa seinamma. 4. Jah 

warth miththanei saiso. sum raihtis gadraus faur wig. jah quemun fuglos, jah fretun 
thata Zahns Edition, p. 45. 

Title-deed at Naples. 

12. This document was discovered in modern times, and is now 
preserved in the archives of the church of St. Annunciata at Naples. 
It is defective, and written in very corrupt Latin, bearing no date, but 
appearing to have been written in the beginning of the 6th century, soon 
after the arrival of the Goths in Italy. According to this title-deed, the 
clergymen of the church St. Anastasia, sell some land, and ratify the sale 
in several Latin attestations, with four in Gothic. These four subscriptions 
are, as regards the language, of no importance, for they contain no new 
Gothic words ; but they are highly valuable as affording an incontestible 
proof that the language and writing of the Codex Argenteus are genuine 
Gothic. Some have questioned whether this Codex be Gothic, but it is 
in the same language and the same character as these attestations, and 
they are written, at the period of Gothic influence in Italy, in the Gothic 
language and character by Gothic priests, having Gothic names ; therefore 
the Codex Argenteus must also be Gothic. 

The title-deed preserved at Naples was minutely copied by Professor 
Massmann. As all the published copies are very defective, he has promised 
shortly to give to the world a faithful facsimile.* 

One attestation will be a sufficient specimen of the language. 

Ik winjaifrithas diakon handu meinai ufmelida jah (andnemum) skilliggans. I. 
Ego Winefridus Diaconus manu mea subscripsi et accepimus solidos 60 

* See Zahn's Gothic Gospels, p. 77 ; Massmann's St. John, pref. p. ix. : a facsimile is given 
by Sierakowsky, 1810, also in Marini's tab. 118. 



CXVlii GOTHIC — AREZZO, KNITTEL, MAI. 

jah faurthis thairh kawtsjon mith diakon(a) (ala) myda unsaramma jah mith- 

et antea per cautionem cum Diacono nostra et con- 

gahlaibaim unsaraim andnemum skilliggans. RK. wairth thize saiwe. 
ministris nostris accepimus solidos 120 pretium horum paludum. 

Title-deed at Arezzo. 

13. This is a contract written on Egyptian papyrus. A deacon, Gott- 
lieb sells to another deacon, Alamud, an estate with some buildings. This 
document is written in barbarous Latin, and only contains one Gothic 
attestation. It is contemporary with the Neapolitan document, and of 
equal importance: the original MS. is unfortunately lost, but the following 
is copied from Zahn.* 

Ik guthilub* dkns tho frabauhta boka fram mis gawaurhta thus dkn* 

Ego Gottlieb Diaconus hcBC vendidi librum a me feci tibi Diacone 

alamoda fidwor unkjana hugsis kaballarja jah killiggans' RLG^ andiiahm jah 

Alamod quatuor uncias fundi Caballaria et solidos 133 accepi et 
ufmelida, 
subscripsi. 

14. Knittel, Archdeacon of Wolfenbuttel, in the Dutchy of Brunswick, 
found a palimpsest f manuscript of the 8th century, containing part of the 
11th and following chapters, as far as the 13th verse of the xvth chapter 
of St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans, in Gothic and Latin. 

This document is denominated Codex Carolinus, from Charles, Duke of Brunswick, 
who enabled Knittel to give his work to the world. He published it in twelve plates, 
4to. 17614 Republished by Ihre in Roman characters, with Latin version, notes, 
index, &c. pp. 90, Upsal, 1763. Again, by Manning, in the Appendix to his edition 
of Lye's Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, 2 vols, folio, 1772. And by Biisching, Berlin, 
4to. 1773. 

15. Angelo Mai, while keeper cf the Ambrosian Library at Milan, 
discovered some fragments of Gothic in palimpsest manuscripts, and, 
with Count Castiglione, published the following extracts : — 

Esdras ii. 28—42 : Nehem. v. 13—18 ; vi. 14—19; vii. 1—3 : Mt. xxv. 38—46 ; 
xxvi. 1—3; 65—75; xxvii. 1 : Philip, ii. 22—30; iii. 1—16: Titus i. 1—16; ii. 1: 

* A more circumstantial description of both these documents is given in Zahn's preface, 
p. 77, 78, and in the following works : — Versuch einer Erlauterung der Gothischen Sprachii- 
berreste in Neapel und Arezo als eine Einladungsschrift und Beilage zura Ulphilas, von 
J. C. Zahn, Braunschweig, 1804. Antonius Franciscus Gorius was the first who, in the year 
1731, published the document of Arezzo in the following work: J. B. Doni Inscriptiones 
antiquae nunc primum editae notisque illustratae, &c. ah A. F. Gorio, Florent. 1731, folio. 
Professor H. F. Massman observes, that, notwithstanding the most minute investigation, he 
has not been able to discover the Gothic document of Arezo. (Preface to the Gothic Com- 
mentary on St. John, p. x.) It is, however, copied in No. 117 of Gaetano il/an« fsPapiri 
Diplomatic!, &c. Romae, 1805, folio, from the original attributed to a.d. 551, and again pub- 
lished in Codice diplomatico Toscano dal antiquario Brunetti, 11, p. 209 — 213, Firenze, 
1833, 4to. 

t Rescript, from iraXiv again, and ^aw to wipe or cleanse. For an interesting account of 
the discoveries made in palimpsest MSS. see a paper by the venerable Archdeacon Nares in 
the Transactions of the Royal Society of Literature, Vol. 1. part i. p. 122. 

X Friedrich Adolph Ebert, late librarian of the King of Saxony, has declared, after having 
collated it in the most minute manner, that this edition is the most correct copy of the MS. 
For want of sale many copies were used as waste paper, and the copper-plates were sold for 
old copper: it is therefore become very scarce. See Allgemeines bibliographisches Lexicon 
von F. A. Ebert, vol. ii. p. 992, Leipzig, F. A. Broekhaus, 1830, 4to. 



GOTHIC — CASTIGLIONE, MASSMANN. CXlX 

Philem. i. 11 — 23 ; — A page from a Homily — A fragment of a Gothic Calendar. He 
concludes his small volume with a Glossary and two plates. The Gothic fragments 
are accompanied with a Latin version, and in the parts taken from the Scriptures the 
Greek text is given. This work was published with the following title : — Ulphilae 
partium ineditarum in Ambrosianis Palimpsestis ab Angelo Maio repertarum specimen 
conjunctis curis ejusdem Maii et Caroli Octavii Castillionaei editum, Mediolani, 4to. 
1819, pp. 1—36, Pref. xxiv.* 

16. Count Castiglione again proved his zeal for Gothic literature by 
publishing — 

Ulphilae Gothica versio, epistolae Divi Pauli ad Corinthios secundae quam ex Am- 
brosianae Bibliothecae palimpsestis depromptam cum interpretatione adnotationibus, 
glossario edidit Carolus Octavius Castillionaeus, Mediolani, 4to. 1829. 

17. Count Castiglione, rather than increase suspense by delay, most 
generously determined to satisfy at once the anxious wishes of the learned 
world, by publishing the text of the following work without preface or 
glossary : — 

Gothicae versionis epistolarum Divi Pauli ad Romanes, ad Corinthios primae, ad 
Ephesios, quae supersunt ex Ambrosianae Bibliothecae palimpsestis deprompta cum 
adnotationibus edidit Carolus Octavius Castillionaeus, Mediolani, Regiis typis, 1834, 
4to. p. 64. 

18. A commentary on parts of the Gospel according to St. John, written 
in Moeso-Gothic, has been published in Germany by Dr. H. Massmann, 
from a MS. in the Vatican. 

It is a 4to. vol. of 182 pages, to which is prefixed a dedication and an account of 
the manuscript, in 17 pages. Then follow 34 pages of two columns in a page of the 
Commentary in Moeso-Gothic, printed in facsimile types. Immediately afterwards 
is given in 15 pages the same Moeso-Gothic, text in Roman type, in one column, and 
a literal Latin version in the other, with notes at the foot of the page. Then succeed 
an account of the proposed emendations of the MS., a short notice of the life of 
Ulphilas, and a complete Glossary of all the Moes. words not only in the text of the 
Commentary, but those found in Castiglione's extracts from St. Paul's Epistle to the 
Romans, first of Corinthians, and the Ephesians mentioned in the last paragraph. 
At the end is a copper-plate containing several facsimiles of MSS.f The full title of 
the work is, Skeirein's Aiwaggeljons thairh Johannen: Auslegung des Evangelii Johan- 
nis in gothischer Sprache. Aus romischen und maylandischen Handschriften nebst 
lateinischer Uebersetzung, belegenden Anmerkungen, geschichtlicher Untersuchung, 
gothisch-lateinischem Worterbuche und Schriftproben. Im Auftrage seiner Konig- 
lichen Hoheit des Kronprinzen Maximilian von Bayern erlesen, erlautert und zum 
ersten Male herausgegeben von H. F. Massmann, Doctor der Philosophic, Professor 
der alteren deutschen Sprache, etc. 4to. Miinchen, 1834. 

* Transactions of the Royal Society of Literature, Vol, 1. part i. p. 129. 

f A new edition of all that is discovered of Ulphilas's translation of the Scriptures is 
advertised to appear in the course of this year, with this title : Ulfilas, vet. et novi test, 
versionis Goth, fragmenta quae supersunt— cum glossario et grammatica, edid. H, C. de Gahe- 
lentz et Dr. J. Loebe, 2 torn. 4'to. maj. Altenburgi, Schnuphase. See AUgemeines Verzeichniss 
der Biicher der Frankfurter und Leipziger Oster-messe, 1836, p. 251. Ina critique inserted 
in the Gbttinger gelehrte Anzeigen, it is mentioned that the celebrated philologist, Prof. 
Jacob Grimm, has been long preparing a complete edition of all the fragments of Ulphilas's 
version of the Bible. The original text is to be printed in the Latin character. 



cxx 



HIGH-GERMAN ALEMANNF. 



The Gothic begins thus : 
saei frathjai aiththau 

sokjai Guth. 
Allai usvandidedum. 
samana unbrukjai vaurthun, 
jah ju uf dauthaus 
atdrusun stauai. 



Latin version. 
si est intelligens aut 

requirens Deum. 
Omnes declinaverunt. 

simul inutiles facti sunt, 
ac jam sub mortis 

inciderunt judicium p. 37- 



19. With the extinction of the Gothic dynasties, this pure and rich 
German tongue, though vestiges still remain, ceased to be a prevailing 
dialect. Like the Scandinavian branches, the Gothic retained a distinct 
form for the passive voice. The Scandinavians, having little interruption 
from other nations, would most likely retain their grammatical forms much 
longer than the southern German tribes, who (from the 4th century, when 
the Moeso-Gothic Gospels were written, to the 8th, when we find the next 
earliest specimen of German) must have lost many of the old forms, and 
with them probably the passive voice. 



VIII.— THE ALEMANNI OR SUABIANS. 

1. There are various opinions about the derivation of the word 
Alemanni. It was a name given to the Suabians,* who appear to have 
come from the shores of the Baltic to the southern part of Germany. This 
locality of the Suabians is, in some measure, confirmed by the ancient 
name of the Baltic, Mare Suevicum, Suavian, or Suabian Sea. In the 
beginning of the 3rd century, the Suabians assembled in great numbers 
on the borders of the Roman empire, between the Danube, Rhine, and 
Main,t and united with other tribes. To denote this coalition or union 
of various nations, they were called Alemanni various men, all men.X 

* Schwaben (Suavi) according to Schmitthenner, Schwabe, m. pi. Schwaben, in Old High- 
Ger. Suab, pi. Suaba, and signifies the wise, the intelligent, a person full of understanding and 
discernment, from the Old High- Ger. sueban to perceive, understand, know, discern, comprehend. 

f VTalafridus Strabo de Vita B. Galli apud Goldastum, torn. I. rer Alemann. p. 143 : Igitur 
quia mixti Alemannis Suevi partem Germanise ultra Danubium, partem Retiae inter Alpes 
et Histriam, partemque Galliae circa Ararim obsederunt. — Jornandes de rebus Geticis, 
cap. Iv. : Theodemir Gothorum rex emenso Danubio, Suevis improvisus a tergo apparuit. 
Nam regio ilia Suevorum ab oriente Baiobaros habet, ab occidente Francos, a meridie Bur- 
gundiones, a septentrione Thuringos. Quibus Suevis tunc juncti Alemanni etiam aderant, 
ipsique alpes erectas omnino regentes. 

X Ger. allerley various, different: mann man. Schmitthenner says from the Old-Ger. allo- 
man each, in the plural alamanna many, a nation, community. — Von Schmid in his Suavian 
Dictionary, sub Alh, alp, informs us that aim, almand, or almang, denoted not only a common, 
a pasture, but a mountain ; hence the people dwelling on the mountains in Austria, Tyrol, &c. 



HIGH-GERMAN — ALEMANNIC DIALECT, PECULIARITIES OF. CXXI 

Thus increased in power, they soon ventured to make formidable inroads 
into the Roman territory, and not only entered the plains of Lombardy, 
but advanced almost in sight of Rome. They were repelled, and, in 
a new attack, vanquished by Aurelian.* The term Alemanni was used 
by foreigners as synonymous with Germans,t and, while in English they 
are called Germans, in French and Spanish they are to this day denomi- 
nated x\lemanns. This great confederacy terminated in a,d. 496, by 
a bloody victory of the Francic king, Clovis (Chlodovseus), at Tolbiac, 
near Cologne on the Rhine, the present ZuUich or Zulpich. 

2. The peculiarities of the Suabian or Alemannic dialect are these : 

The first vowela very much prevails, and the final n of verbs is omitted : thus they say, 
saga for sagen to say ; fraga for fragen to ask. They change the Ger. o into au, and 
use braut for brot bread; grauss for gross great. For the Ger. st, they put scht (sht) ; 
they use du bischt, kannscht, for du bist thou art; kannst canst. They form dimi- 
nutives in li, ICy as herzli for Ger. herzchen a little heart. In the inflections of soUen 
shallj woUen will, the / is generally omitted ; as, du sottascht di doch schema, for du 
solltest dich doch schamen thou shouldst be ashamed. The oldest Suabian and Upper 
German dialect contained very few rough hissing sounds. In old documents, and 
till the time of Emperor Maximilian I. the sch is rarely found. The hissing sounds 
begin on the borders of Italy and France, diminish in the middle of Germany, and 
nearly disappear in North or Low- Germany. 

3. The Suabians of the present day speak in a lively and quick 
manner. 

4. The Alemannic or Suabian dialect prevails in the north of Switzer- 
land, in Alsace, Baden, Wurtemberg, Bavaria, and the western part of 
the Austrian States. 

5. Some of the authors who are generally said to have written in 
Alemannic, and some of the early compositions in this dialect, are — 

An exhortation to Christians, a.d. 720 (x. 2) — Kero, a. d. 800 (x. 7) Rhabanus 

Maurus, a.d. 850 (x. 11).— Otfrid, a.d. 860 (x. 12) Notker, a.d. 1020 (x. 16) 

Nibelungen Lied, a.d. 1150 (x. 24) Walter von der Vogelweide, a.d. 1190 (x. 25). 

— Chunrad von Kirchberg, a.d. 1195 (x. 26) Gotfrit von Nifen, a.d. 1235 (x. 29). 

— Sch waben- Spiegel, a.d. 1250 (x. 31), &c. 

were called Alemanni. Oi ^& AXafiauoi tiyz XP'*1 Ao-iwo) KovaSparw itrt.a-dat.f avSpi iTaXiMTrj 
Kai Ta VipfxavLKU is to a/cyoij8£S avaypaxl/afitvw ^uj/tjXi^es siaLV dvOpwiroi Kai fiiyaSe^- Kat 
TovTo SvuaTaL a'uTois tj iiroovvfiLa. Alemanni, si Asinio Quadrato fides, viro Italo et Ger- 
manicarum rerum exacto Scriptori, communes sunt variis e nationibus collecti, id ipsum apud 
eos consignificante vocabulo. — Agathias, lib. i. Hist. p. 7. 

* Gibbon, ch. xi. 

t Nota, quod partes viciniores Italicis, sicut sunt Bavaria, Suevia, dictae fuerint, ab Italis 
prime Alemannia, et homines dicebantur Alemanni, nota secundum Orosium et Solinum 
quod tunc temporis Germania et Alemania habebantur pro uno et eodem. Nam Ungaria 
dicebatur Pannonia, et ab Ungaria usque ad Rhenum dicebatur Germania, vel Alemania, et 
ultra Rhenum Gallia. — Auctor Hist. Landgrav. Thur. c. vi. ; Struvii Corpus Hist. Ger § 1 • 
de Ger. orig. Sfc. p. 10, n. 22.— See II. § 2, and note (f). ' 



CXXll 



IX.— THE FRANCS. 

i. The Francs,* or Freemen, were a confederacy of high-spirited and 
independent German tribes, dwelling between the Rhine and Elbe, 
They were composed of the Tencteri, Catti, Sali, Bructeri, Chamavi, 
Chaiici, &c. who occupied the modern Prussian provinces on the Rhine, 
Zwey-Briicken or Deux-Fonts, part of Hesse, the south of Saxony, and 
the northern part of Bavaria. The Francs lying to the north-east were 
called Salian Francs from the river Sala, and those on the Rhine were, 
from their situation, denominated Ripuarian Francs. 

2. This confederation was known, under the denomination of Francs, 
about A.D. 240. t According to Schilter,^ the Francs were first men- 
tioned by Eumenius, a Latin orator, born at Autun in France, at the 
beginning of the 4th century. They had been harassed by the Romans ; 
and having felt the importance of union for self-defence, they, when 
united, soon discovered not only an ability to resist their enemies, but 
in turn to invade some of the Roman territories. In the beginning of the 
5th century they took possession of the west bank of the Rhine, and began 
to make incursions into Gaul. 

3. About A.D, 420, their power extended from the Rhine nearly over 
the whole of Gaul, and they founded the Merovingian dynasty, under 
Pharamond their king, who, according to their custom, was elected by 
the chiefs of the nation, constituting the Francic confederacy. The 
Merovingian line continued for 323 years through a succession of twenty- 
two kings, from A.D. 428 to 751. One of the Merovingian kings, Clodwig, 
Chlothovecus, Clovis, Ludewig, or Lewis, subdued the Alemanni in 
A.D. 496; and, immediately after this conquest, he and many of his 
subjects made a public profession of the Christian faith by being baptized 
at Rheims. 

4. After the Merovingian succeeded the Carlovingian family, which 
supplied eleven kings, who held the reins of the Francic government for 
236 years ; then succeeded in France the Capetian line, which needs not 
be further noticed, as it would lead to a history of France beyond the 
object of this notice. 

5. Pepin, the first king of the Carlovingian race, seized the Francic 
crown in a.d. 751, and divided the kingdom between his two sons, 
Charlemagne and Carloman. After the death of his brother^ Charlemagne 
became sole possessor of the kingdom in 768. As some short historical 

* Frank, according to Schmitthenner, signifies originally, preceding, Jjold, upright, free; 
hence, der Franke the Franc; Old Ger. franho ; Icel. frackr m. francus, liber, generosus, elatus, 
tumidus. Frackar m. pi. Francones, Franci ; fracki m. virtuosus, potens. 

f Gibbon, ch x. Turner's Hist, of Anglo-Saxons, bk. 2, ch. iii. 

+ Schilter's, Gloss, to Thes. vol. iii. p. 316. 



HIGH-GERMAN — EXHORTATION TO CHRISTIANS, ABOUT A. D. 720. CXXiii 

remarks* will be made when specimens of the language are introduced, 
it will only be necessary to observe here, that Charlemagne, after showing 
himself one of the greatest men that ever reigned over a most extensive 
empire, died in a.d. 814. 

6. It is difficult to name with minuteness and precision all the writers 
and the compositions in the Francic dialect ; but the following are gene- 
rally considered as written in this idiom : — 

A translation of Isidore, a.d. 800 (x. 8) — Hildibraht and Hadubrant, a.d. 730 

(x. 3) Ludwigslied, a.d. 883 (x. 14).— A Translation of Boethius, a.d. 950 (x. 18). 

— Willeram's Paraphrase, a.d. 1070 (x. 20) The Praise of St. Anno, a.d. 1075 

(x. 21), &c. 



X.— HIGH-GERMAN, OR THE ALEMANNIC, SUABIAN, AND 
FRANCIC DIALECTS. 

1 . The translation of the Scriptures by Bishop Ulphilas, about A. D. 360, 
affords the earliest specimen of German. Almost four centuries elapsed 
between the writings of Ulphilas, and the composition of the following 
exhortation. When the Francs and Alemanni were converted to Chris- 
tianity, their instructors not only wrote prayers, exhortations, sermons, 
hymns, and commentaries on the Scriptures, but also composed glossaries; 
thus preserving specimens of the German language in the 7th and 8th 
centuries. 

2. An exhortation to Christians (exhortatio ad plebem Christiandm) 
is taken from a MS. of the early part of the 8th century, originally pre- 
served in the bishoprick of Freisingen in Bavaria, and Fulde in Hesse, 
but now in Munich and Kassel. It was published in HoUiiiger's His- 
toria Ecclesiastica, vol. viii. p. 1220; in B. J, DocerCs Miscellaneen, 
vol. i. p. 4 — 8; and in WackernageVs Altdeutsches Lesebuch, 8vo. 
Basel, 1835. 

EXHORTATIO. 

Hloset ir, chindo liupostun, rihtida thera galaupa the ir in herzin kahucclicho 
hapen sculut, ir den christanun namun intfangan eigut, thaz ist chundida iuuerera 

christanheiti, fona demo truhtine in man gaplasan, fona sin selpes jungiron kasezzit 

WackernageVs Altdeut. Les. p. 6. 

LITERAL GERMAN. 

Lauschet ihr. Kinder liebsten, der zucht des Glaubens, den ihr iin Herzen behiitlich 
haben soUet, (wenn) ihr den Christennamen empfangen habt, das ist Kunde eurer 
Christenheit, von dem Herrn eingeblasen, von seinen eigenen Jiingern gesetzt. 

* See X. § 9, 10. 



CXXiv HIGH-GERMAN — HILDIBRAHT AND HADUBRANT, A D. 730. 



LITERAL ENGLISH. 



Listen ye, children dear, to the instruction of the beUef, which you shall preserve 
in your hearts, (when) you have received the Christian name, that is, the knowledge 
of your Christianity, inspired by the Lord, (and) established by his own disciples. 

3. The heroic Song, relating the combat hetiueen Hildibraht and 
Hadubrant. The language of this song is Francic, with a great inter- 
mixture of the Low-German dialect. Bouterweck considers it just what 
one would expect from the attempt of a Low-Saxon to write Francic. 
Like the Wessobrunn Prayer, it is alliterative,* and ascribed to the 8th 
century. It was first published by Eckard, in Commentariis de rebus 
Francorum, vol. i. p. 864, from the Fulda manuscript, now kept at Kassel, 
by Grimm, at Kassel, 1812, and in his Altdeutsche Walder, vol. ii. p. 97. 
A lithographic specimen of the fragment preserved at Gottingen was given 
by Professor Grimm in 1830. An edition appeared in 1833, by Lachmann. 
An explanation of the difficult passages by W. Mohr, in 12mo. pp. 16, 
Marburg, 1836. 



Old German. 
Ik gihorta dhat seggen, 

dhat sih wrhettun 

» 
enon muotin 

Mltibraht job ^adubraiit 
untar ^erjun tvem. 

sunufatarungos 
iro saro rihtun, 

^arutun se iro ^udhamun, 

^urtun sih svert ana, 

Aelidos, ubar Aringa, 

do sie ti dero Ailtju ritun. 
jffiltibraht gimahalta : 

er was Aeroro man, 
/erahes/rotoro : 

er/ragen gistuont 
/ohem wortum 

hver sin/ater wari 
/ireo in/olche, 



Literal Modern German, 
Ich horte das sagen, 

dass sich herausforderten 

einstimmig 

Hildebrand und Hadubrand 

unter einander. 

Sohn und Vater, wie 

sie ihren Kampfplatz be- 

stimmt 
thaten sie ihre Kriegshem- 

den an 
giirteten sich ihr Schwert 

um 
die Helden zum Ringen 

(KampO 
da sie zum Kampf ritten. 
sprach Hildebrand : 
er war ein hehrer Mann 
Geistes weise : 
er fragen that 
mit wenigen Worten 
wer sein Vater ware 
im Manner Volke, 



Literal English. 
I heard it said 

that Hiltibraht and Hadu- 
brant 

with one voice* 

challenged 

one another. 

Son and father, when 

the (combat) place they 
fixed, 

their coat of war they put 
on, 

girded their sword on, 

the heroes for the fight, 

when they to combat rode. 
Hiltibraht spoke: 
he was a stately man, 
of a prudent (^wise) mind : 
he did ask 
with few words 
who his father was 
among the race of men. 



eddo hvelihhes cnuosles oder welches Stammes du or of what family {he was) 
du sis. seyst. thou art. 

Wackernagel. p. 14. 



The alliteration in the example is denoted by italic letters. 



HIGH-GERMAN — ST. AMBROSE'S HYMNS, ABOUT A.D. 750. CXXV 

4. The following Latin hymns are ascribed to St. Ambrose, who was 
Bishop of Milan from a.d. 374 to 397. The German translations, made 
by an unknown hand, are thought to be of the 8th century. They are 
found in WackernageVs Altdeutches Lesebuch, 8vo. Basel, 1835. 



The Original Latin. 
Deus qui coeli lumen es 
satorque lucis, qui polum 
paterno fultum brachio 
praeclara pandis dextera. 

Aurora Stellas jam tegit 
rubrum sustollens gurgitem, 
humectis namque flatibus 
terram baptizans roribus. 

Wackernagel, p. 7. 



Old German Translation. 
cot du der himiles leoht pist 
saio job leohtes du der bimil 
faterlichemu arspriuztan arme 
duruheitareru spreitis zesauun 

tagarod sterna giu dechit 
rotan ufpurrenti uuak 
fuhtem kauuisso plastim 
erda taufanter tauura. 



TE DEUM.* 



The Original Latin. 
Te Deum laudamus. 
te dominum confitemur. 
te aeternum patrem 
omnis terra veneratur. 

Tibi omnes angeli, tibi coeli 
et universae potestates, 
tibi cherubim et seraphim 
incessabUi voce proclamant. 

Sanctus sanctus sanctus 
dominus deus sabaoth. 
pleni sunt cceli et terra 
maj estate gloriae tuae. 

Wackernagel, p. 11. 



Old German Translation. 
thih cot lopemes 
thih truhtnan gehemes 
thih euuigan fater 
eokiuuelih erda uuirdit (eret). 

thir alle engila thir himila 
inti alio kiuualtido 
thir cherubim inti seraphim 
unbilibanlicheru stimmo forharent. 

uuiher uuiher uuiher 
truhtin cot herro 
foUiu sint himila inti erda 
thera meginchrefti tiurida thinera. 



5. A HYMN to the honour of St. Peter, by an anonymous author of the 
8th century, published from a MS. of Freisingen, in Docen's Miscellaneen, 
2 vols. Munich, 1809: Hoffmann's Fundgruben, 8vo. 1 vol. Breslau, 1830. 

Vnsar trohtin hat farsalt sancte petre ginualt, 
daz er mac ginerian ze imo dingenten man. 
Kyrie eleyson. Christe eleyson. 
Er hapet ouh mit vuortun himilriches portun, 
dar in mach er skerian, den er uuili nerian. 
Kirie eleison. Christe (eleison). 
Fundgruben, p. 1. 

LITERAL GERMAN. 

Unser Herr hat verliehen St. Peter gewalt, 
das er kann erhalten (den) zu ihm bittenden mann. 

Ku/oi£ i\tr)(TOV, XpiffTE iXEtjaov, 

Er hat auch mit worten (des) himmelreiches pforten, 
dahin kann er bringen den er will erhalten 

Kvpu iXiriffov, X/otoTTE iXttjcrov. 



For a specimen of the Te Deum, in German of the 12th century, see § 22. 



CXXvi HIGH-GERMAN— WESSOBRUNN PRAYER, ABOUT AD. 770. 



LITERAL ENGLISH. 

Our Lord has given St. Peter power, 
that he may preserve, the man that prays to him. 
Lord have mercy, Christ have mercy. 
He also keeps, with words, the portals of heaven's kingdom 
wherein he may take, whom he will preserve. 
Lord have mercy. Christ have mercy. 

6. The Wessobrunn Prayer, so called from the MS. being first dis- 
covered in the monastery of Wessobrunn, in Bavaria. The MS. is of the 
latter part of the 8th century ; it was published by Professor J, Grimm 
at Kassel, 1812, by Massmann at Berlin, 1824, and in WackernageVs 
Altdeutsches Lesebuch, 8vo. Basel, 1835. The alliteration is denoted 
by italic letters. 



Old German. 
Datga^egin ih mit/irahim 

/iriwizzo meista, 
dat ero ni was 

noh wfhimil, 
noh j3aum nohheinig 

noh j»ereg ni was ; 
ni 

noh sunna ni scein 
noh mono ni liuhta 

noh der wzareoseo. 
do dar niM;iht ni wbe 

enteo ni z^enteo, 
enti do was der eino 

almahtico cot, &c. 

Wackernagel, p. 17 



Literal Modern German. 
Das horte ich bey Men- 

schen 
mit Fiirwitz meistem, 
dass Erde nicht war 
noch Aufhimmel, 
noch Baum einiger 
noch Berg nicht war ; 

nicht 

noch Sonne nicht schien 
noch Mond nicht leuchtete 
noch der Meersee. 
Als da Nichts nicht war 
Ende noch Wende, 
und da war der eine 
allmachtige Gott, &c. 



' Literal English. 
This I heard from men 

of most curiosity, 

that (the) earth was not 

nor heaven, 

nor any tree 

nor mountain was ; 

not 

nor sun did shine 
nor moon gave light 
nor the main (sea). 
when there was no wight 
end nor wend (turn), 
and then was the one 
Almighty God, &c. 



7. Kero, a monk in the abbey of St. Gallen in Switzerland, made 
a German translation of the Rules of St. Benedict, about a.d. 800, under 
the title, Interpretatio Regulae Sancti Benedicti Thetisca, Schilter^s Thes. 
at the end of vol i. p. 25, and a part of it in Graff^s Althochdeutscher 
Sprachschatz. 

De Taciturnitate, chap. VL 

Tuamees. daz qhuad vvizzago qhuad ih kehalte vveka mine daz nalles 
Faciamus quod ait Pr^opheta : Dixi, custodiam vias meas, ut non 
missitue in zungun mineru sazta munde minemu kehaltida ertumbeta indi 
delinqam in lingua mea : Posui ori meo custodiam ; Obmutui et 

kedeomuatit pim indi suuiketa fona cuateem hiar keaugit uuizzago ibu fona 
humiliatus sum, et silui a bonis; hie ostendit propheta, si a 

cuateem sprahhom ofto duruh suuigalii sculi suuigeen huueo meer 

bonis eloquiis interdum propter taciturnitatem debet taceri. Quanto magis 
fona vbileem vvortum duruh vvizzi dera sunta sculi pilinnan. 
a malis verbis propter poenam peccati debet cessari? 

Graff, p. xlviii. 



HIGH-GERMAN — ISIDORE, ABOUT A.D. 800. CXXvii 

LITERAL GERMAN. 

Thuen wir das, was der Weissager sagt : ich habe gesagt, ich werde bewachen, die 
Wege mein, dass ich nichts missethue mit meiner Zunge ; ich setzte dem Munde 
mein eine Wache, ich bin verstummt, und gedemiithiget und schweige von den 
Guten. Heir zeigt der Weissager, wenn von guten Reden oft wegen der Verschwie - 
genheit soil geschwiegen werden, wie viel mehr von iibeln Worten wegen der Strafe 
der Siinde soil geschwiegen werden. 

LITERAL ENGLISH. 

Let us do what the sayer (^Prophet) saith : I have said I will keep my ways, that 
I nothing misdo with my tongue : I have set a watch over my mouth, I was dumb, 
and humbled, and silent (even) from good ; here the wise-sayer shows, if from good 
speeches often for taciturnity we should be silent, how much more from evil words 
should we cease for punishment of the sin. 

8. Isidore, born at Carthage, was archbishop of Seville, from 600 
to 636. Amongst other works, he wrote a treatise, De Nativitate Domini, 
of which a Franc is supposed to have made a translation. The MS. is 
preserved at Paris. It was published by Jo. PhiL Palthen, at Greifswald, 
1706, and again in Schilter's Thes. at the end of vol. i. Ulm, 1728: it 
was also inserted by Rostgaard in the Danish Bibliotheca, No. 2, Copen- 
hagen, 1738. 

The following specimen of Isidore is from Graff'' s Althochdeutschen 
Sprachschatz, vol. i. p. xlv. Berlin, 1834,* most carefully collated by this 
indefatigable scholar with the original MS. at Paris. It is to be found 
also in Schilter's Thes, p. 4 of vol. i., Isidore, ch. iv. 1. 

Hear quhidit umbi dhea Bauhnunga. dhero dhrio heideo gotes. 
Araugit ist in dhes aldin uuizssodes boohhum. dhazs fater endi sunu endi heilac 
geist got sii. Oh dhes sindun unchilaubun iudeo liudi. dhazs sunu endi heilac gheist 
got sii. bi dhiu huuanda sie chihordon gotes stimna hluda in sina berge quhedhenda. 
Chihori dhu israhel druhtin got dhin. ist eino got. 

LITERAL GERMAN. 

Hier wird gesprochen von der bedeutung der Dreieinigkeit Gottes. 
Sichtbar ist in den alten bundes biichern, dass Vater und Sohn und heiliger Geist 
Gott seyn. O der siindigen (thorichten) Juden leute, unglaubig dass Sohn und 
heiliger Geist Gott seyn, darum well sie horten Gottes stimme laut auf dem berge 
Sinai sprechend : Hore du Israel der Herr dein Gott ist einge Gott. 

LITERAL ENGLISH. 

Here is spoken about the signification of the Trinity of God. 
It is visible, in the books of the Old Testament, that the Father and Son and Holy 
Ghost is God. O the sinful Jewish people, disbelieving that the Son and the Holy 
Ghost is God, because they heard God's voice loud on mount Sinai, saying. Hear 
thou, Israel, the Lord thy God is one God. 

* In the preface to this laborious and learned work, from p. xxxiii. to Ixxiii. there is a very 
valuable account of old Ger. MSS. Some specimens are given of unpublished glossaries and 
fragments of a translation of Boetius de consolatione philosophiae, supposed to be Notker's 
work (in cod. 5, gall. 825) of Mart. Capella de Nuptiis Mercurii et PhiJologise, (in cod. 5, 
gall. 872,) and of Aristotle's Organon (in cod. 5, gall. 818). The glossaries are from the 7th 
to the 9th century. To give a true idea of the quality and state of the MSS. Graff has very 
properly given them with all their faults, &c. exactly as he found them. 



CXXviii HIGH-GERMAN — CHARLES's OATH, A.D. 842. 

9. Charlemagne,* who reigned from 768 — 814, united the German 
tribes, the Francs, Alemanni, Bavarians, T7iuringia?is, Saxons, Longo- 
bards, Burgundians, &c. into one mighty empire, and governed all the 
nations from the Eider in the north of Germany, to the Ebro in Spain — 
from the Baltic sea to the Tiber in Italy. Arts and sciences declined 
more and more after the time of Gregory the Great, in 604, who himself 
discouraged scientific pursuits so much, that at the time of Charlemagne 
there was scarcely a trace of science or literature on the continent. Charle- 
magne arose, and obtained the aid of the most learned men of his time for 
the improvement of his mighty empire. A few of these eminent men may 
be named. Alkuin, an Anglo-Saxon monk, born about 732, educated at 
York, was well versed in Latin, Greek, Hebrew, theology, rhetoric, 
poetry, and mathematics, and was also distinguished for his piety. He 
died, abbot of Tours, in 804. Theodulph died 821, bishop of Orleans. 
Eginhard, born in Odenwalde, South Germany, wrote the History of 
Charlemagne, and died in 839. Schools were also established in different 
parts of the empire. By these means science and literature were sup- 
ported in the 9th and following centuries. Charlemagne enjoined the 
clergy to preach in German, and to translate homilies into that language. 
He himself attempted to form a German Grammar, and ordered a col- 
lection of the national songs to be made, which unfortunately are lost, but 
we may form some judgment of them from the Hildibraht, a remarkable 
fragment of early German. 

10. The successors of Charlemagne inherited his empire, but not his 
talents. The second son of Charlemagne, Ludwig or Lewis the pious, in 
the year 843, divided the empire among his three sons: — 1. Lewis h^idi 
Germany, which comprised Suabia, East Franconia, Bavaria, Thuringia, 
Saxony. Germany, from this early period to the present day, has pre- 
served its language, its customs, and independence. 2. To Charles, Gallia 
was assigned. 3. Lothar received for his portion, Dauphine, Alsace, 
and Burgundy. 

At first the Francs, in Gallia under Charles, spoke German, but they 
soon mixed it with the language of the subdued Gauls. The oaths which 
Charles and Lewis and their subjects took near Strasburg in 842, to 
protect their empire against Lothar, their eldest brother, are preserved. 
The grandson of Charlemagne, Abbot Nidhart, who died 853, in his 
history of the disputes of the sons, has preserved the form of the oath in 
German and French. It is a curious specimen of both languages at this 
early period, f 

Charles's Oath in Francic, or Old German. 

In godes minna ind in thes christianes folches ind unser bedhero gehaltnissi, fon 
thesemo dage frammordes, so fram so mir got geuuizci indi mahd furgibit, so haldih 

♦ Eginharti de Vita Carolimagni commentariis, cum annotationibus Ger. Nicolai Heerkens, 
Groningiae, 12mo. 1755. Histoire de Charlemagne par Gaillard, 2 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1819. 

f Roquefortgloss.de la langue romane, tom.i. disc. prel. p. xx. Wackernagel's Altdeutscbes 
Lesebuch, 8vo. Basel, 1835, p. 26. 



HIGH-GERMAN — LEWIs's OATH, A.D. 842. CXXix 

tesan minan bruodher soso man mit rehtu sinan bruodher seal, in thiu thaz er mig so 
soma duo, indi mit Ludherem in nohheiniu thing ne gegangu, the minan uuillon imo 
ce scadhen werdhen. 

LITERAL GERMAN. 

In Gottes Minne und in (wegen) des christlichen Volkes und unser beider Erhal- 
tung von diesem Tage fortan, so fern so mir Gott Weisheit und Macht giebt, so halte 
ich diesen meinen Bruder, so wie man mit Recht seinen Bruder soil, und dass er mir 
auch so thun und mit Ludherem (will ich) in keine Sache nicht gehen, mit meinem 
Willen ihm zu Schaden werden. 

LITERAL ENGLISH. 

In God's love and for the christian folk and our common preservation, from this 
day henceforth, so far as God gives me wisdom and power, so hold I (shall I preserve) 
this my brother, so as one (man) by right his brother should (preserve) and that he to 
me also so may do, and with Lothar I (will) not enter into any thing, with my will, 
to be an injury to him. 

The Oath ofLewiSy in the Romanic, or French. 

Pro deo amur et pro christian poblo et nostro commun salvament, dist di in avant, 
in quant deus savir et podir me dunat, si salvarai eo cist meon fradre Karlo et in 
adjudha et in cadhuna cosa, si cum om per dreit son fradra salvar dist, in o quid il 
mi altresi fazet, et ab Ludher nul plaid nunquam prindrai, qui meon vol cist meon 
fradre Karle in damno sit. 

LITERAL ENGLISH. 

For God's love and for the christian people and our common preservation from this 
day and henceforth, in so far as God gives me wisdom and power, so shall I assist this 
my brother Charles, and in assistance and in any cause so as one (man) by right his 
brother ought to assist in such a manner as he may do to me ; and with Lothar I will 
not enter into any treaty (placitum) which to me, or to this my brother Charles, can 
be an injury. 

Oath of Charles's army, in "Romanic or Old French. 

Si Lodhuvigs sagrament qua; son fradre Karlo jurat conservat, et Karlus raeos 
sendra de suo part non lo stanit, si io returnar non lint pois, ne io ne neuls cui eo 
returnar int pois, in nulla ajudha contra Lodhuwig nun li iver. 

LITERAL ENGLISH. 

If Lewis keeps the oath which to his brother Charles he swore, and Charles my 
Seignior (Lord) on his part does not keep it, if I cannot prevent him, neither I, nor 
any one whom I can prevent, shall give him any assistance against Lewis. 

Oath of Lewis's army, in Francic or Old German. 

Oba Karl then eid, then er sinemo bruodher Ludhuuuige gesuor geleistit, indi 
Ludhuuuig min herro then er imo gesuor forbrihchit, ob ih inan es iruuenden ne 
mag, noh ih noh thero nohhein, then ih es iruuenden mag, uuidhar Karle imo ce 
foUusti ne uuirdhu. 

LITERAL GERMAN. 

Wenn Karl den Eid, den er seinem Bruder Ludwig schwur, leistet (halt) und 
Ludwig, mein Herr (den Eid), den er ihm schwur, bricht, wenn ich ihn davon 
abwenden (abhalten), nicht kann, (so) werden weder ich, noch deren einer, den ich 
davon abwenden (abhalten) kann ihm wider Karl zu Hiilfe nicht seyn (beistehn). 

5 



CXXX HIGH-GERMAN — OTFRID, A. D. 850, 

LITERAL ENGLISH. 

If Charles keeps the oath, which he swore (to) his brother Lewis, and Lewis ray- 
Lord breaks the (oath) which he swore (to) him, in case I cannot prevent him, (then) 
neither I, nor any one whom I can prevent, shall give him any assistance against 
Charles. 

11. Rhabanus Maurus, born at Mayence in 776, became a celebrated 
teacher at Fulda. His attention was attracted to the German language, 
and, in a council at Mayence, a.d. 848, he succeeded in passing a canon 
that in future the clergy should preach in Romanic (French) or Theotisc 
(German). He died. Archbishop of Mayence, Feb. 4th, 856. Rhabanus 
Maurus compiled Glossce Latino barharicce de partibus humani corporis 
Goldast script, rerum Alemannic, vol. i. p. 66 — 69. — Glossarium Latino 
Theodiscum in tota Biblia F, et N, Test. Goldast. id. 

12. Otfrid belonged to the Alemanni or Suabians, and was educated 
at Fulda under Rhabanus Maurus. He was a Benedictine monk at 
Weissenburg in Alsace, a learned theologian, philosopher, orator, and 
poet, who flourished between 840 and 870. Otfrid wrote in rhyme 
a poetical paraphrase of the Gospels in Alemannic, his native language, 
to banish the profane songs of the common people. In this work there 
is a disregard of chronological order, for the poet seems to have written 
down the circumstances as they came into his mind. The MS. was first 
discovered by Beatus Rhenanus in the monastery at Freisingen, near 
Munich; there are two other MSS., one at Heidelburg, and the other 
at Vienna. It was first published by Flaccius {Elericus), at Basle, 1571, 
in Schilter's Thes. vol. i. with Scherz's annotations ; also at Bonn in 4to. 
Bonner Bruchstuche vom Otfried, durch H. Hoffmann von Fallersleben , 
1821. Again in 4to. by E. G. Graff, Konigsberg, 1831, under the title 
of KrisL 

Otfrid's Krist. 
Sehet these fogala. thie hiar fliagent obana. 

zi akare sie ni gangent. ioh ouh uuiht ni spinnent 
Thoh ni bristit in thes. zi uuaru thoh ginuages. 

ni sie sih ginerien. ioh scono giuuerien. 
Biginnet ana scouuon. thie fronisgon bluomon. 

thar liuti after uuege gent, thie in themo akare stent. 
Salomon ther richo. ni uuatta sih gilicho. 

thaz sagen ih iu in ala uuar. so ein thero bluomono thar. 

Krist by Graff, ii. 22, 9 : p. 165, 9. 

LITERAL GERMAN. 

Sehet diese vogel, die hier fliegen obeo. 

Zum acker sie nicht gehen, und auch nichts nicht spinnen, 

Doch nicht fehlt ihnen etwas, fiirwahr zum geniigen, 

Nicht sie sich ernahren, und schon gewahren. 

Beginnet anzuschauen, die herrlichen blumen 

(Wo leute nach wage gehen) di in dem acker stehen : 

Salomon der reiche, nicht kleidete (wattete) sich gleich massig 

Das sage ich euch in aller wahrheit, so wie eine der blumen dar. 



HIGH-GERMAN — LUDWIGSLIED, A.D. 883. CXXXi 

LITERAL ENGLISH. 

See these fowls, which here fly above. 

To the field they go not (i. e. they till not), and also nothing spin, 

Yet want not any thing, they truly have enough, 

They do not nourish themselves, nor make fine. 

Begin to look on the splendid flowers 

(After which people go) standing in the field : 

Solomon, the rich, did not dress (wodded) himself like 

(That say I to you, in all truth) one of the flowers there. 

13. MuspiLLT, a fragment of an old High-German alliterative Poem on 
the end of the world, from a MS. of the middle of the 9th century, in 
the Royal Library at Munich, published by /. A. Schmeller, Munich, 
1832. 

. . . Dar ni mac dennc mak andremo 
helfan* uora demo muspille* denne* daz 
preita uuasal allaz uar prinnit' enti uugir 
enti luft iz allaz arfurpit ; uuar ist denne 
diu marha dar man dar heo* mit sinen ma 
gon piehc ; 

Thus arranged and corrected by Schmeller. 
Dar ni mac denne mak andremo helfan vora demo Muspille. 

Denne daz preita wasal allaz varprinnit, 

enti viur enti luft iz allaz arfurpit, 

war ist denne diu marha,. dar man dar eo mit sinen magon piehc ? 

LITERAL GERMAN. 

. . . . Da mag Kein Mage dem anderen 
helfen vor dem Muspille wenn die 
breite Erdflache ganz verbrennet, und Feuer 
und Luft ist ganz verworfen ; wo ist dann 
die marke, darum man hier mit seinen magen strit ? 

LITERAL ENGLISH VERSION. 

• . . . Then may no kindred assist the other 
for the Muspille. When the 
broad surface of the earth all is burning, and fire 
and air are all cast away ; where is then 
the mark about which one has been quarrelling here with his relatives ? 

14. LuDwiGSLiED, a German heroic song by an unknown author, in 
praise of the East Francic King Lewis III. in the year a.d. 883. The 
MS. was originally at St. Amand, near Tournay, but it is now lost. It 
was published first in Schiller's Thes., then by Docen, Munich, 1813, and 
in 1835 in WackernageV s Altdeutsches Lesebuch, 8vo. Basel, p. 46. 

HEROIC SONG. 

Sang uuas gesungen. Thar vaht thegeno geUh, 

Uuig uuas bigunnen : Nichein so so Hluduuig : 

Bluot skein in uuangon, Snel indi kuoni, 

Spilod under vrankon. Thaz uuas imo gekunni. 



CXXxii HIGH-GERMAN — NOTKER, 1020. 

LITERAL GERMAN. 

Sang war gesungen, Da focht Degen (heroes) gleich 

Kampf war begonnen, Keiner so wie Ludwig, 

Blut schien in Wangen Schnell und kiihn, 

Kampfender Franken. Das war ihm angeboren. 

Schilter, Thes. vol. ii. p. 17. 

LITERAL ENGLISH. 

Song was sung, There fought like a hero 

Fight was begun : Not one so as Lewis, 

Blood shone in the cheeks Quick and bold, 

Of fighting Francs. Which was in him inborn. 

15. Saxon Emperors. During the reign of the Saxon emperors, from 
919 till 1024, literature and science made some progress. The Ottoes 
valued and loved the sciences, and patronised Gerbert the most learned 
man of their time. Gerbert became pope under the name Silvester II. 
and died 1003. 

16. NoTKER wrote in the period of the Saxon emperors. The only 
important monument in High-German literature of this age is a translation 
and commentary on the Psalms by this learned monk, Notker of St. Gallen. 
He was called Labeo, from his broad lips. His Alemannic translation is 
free and natural ; and, as it respects power and strength of expression, it 
equals the best modern translation. Notker died in 1022. His work 
was published in Schilter' s Thes. vol. i. 

PsALM I. 

1 . Beatus vir qui non abiit in consilio impiorum^ 
Der man ist salig, der in dero argon rat ne gegieng. 

So Adam teta, do er dero chenun rates folgeta uuider Gote, Sicut adam 
fecit, cum mulieris consilium sequeretur adversus Deum. 

Et in via peccatorum non stetit. 

Noh an dero sundigon uuege ne stuont. 

So er teta. Er cham dar ana, er cham an den breiten uueg ter ze hello 
gat, unde stuont dar ana, uuanda er hangta sinero geluste. Hengendo 
stuont er. Sicut idem fecit. Processit eo, processit ad viam latam qui ad 
Infernum ducit, et stetit ibi, namque pendebat a concupiscentia sua. Pen- 
dulus stetit. 

Et in cathedra pestilenticB non stetit. 
Noh an demo suhtstuole ne saz. 

Ih meino daz er richeson ne uuolta, uuanda diu suht sturet sie nah alle. 
So sie adamen teta, do er Got uuolta uuerden. Pestis chit latine pecora 
sternens (fieo niderslahinde) so pestis sih kebreitet, so ist iz pestilentia, 
i. e. late peruagata pestis (uuito uuallonde sterbo). Intelligo, quod gubernare, 
(pro tribunali) nollet. Namque hcec pestis corripuitfere omnes, sicut Adamo 
fecit, quum vellet Deus fieri. Pestis dicitur Latine, quasi pecora sternens. 
Quando pestis se dilatat, dicitur Pestilentia, i. e. late pervagata pestis. 

17. After the extinction of the Saxon emperors, the line of Salian 
Francs governed in Germany from a. d. 1024 to 1125. The authors of 
this period generally wrote in Latin. Adam, called Bremensis, born 



HIGH-GERMAN — BOETHIUS, 1024. CXXxiil 

at Meissen, Canon at Bremen, wrote in Latin a History of the Church 
which gives an account of Hamburg and Bremen, from the time of 
Charlemagne to Henry IV. It is of great value for the history of North 
Germany. 

18. German literature had very few monuments in the time of the 
Salian Francs : the language is very stiff and mixed with Latin. The 
few specimens of German, in this period, are translations, such as the 
version of Boethius and Aristotle, by an unknown monk of St. Gallen, 
and the paraphrase of Canticum Canticorum by Willeram. E. G. Graff, 
in his Althochdeutschen Sprachschatz, vol. i. No. I. pref. p. xxxvi. 4to. 
Berlin, 1834, mentions a St. Gallen MS. of the 10th and 11th century, 
containing an old High-German translation of Boethius Cons, philos., 
and gives a specimen of this translation. The following extract is in- 
teresting, from the additions which the monk makes to the Latin text of 
Boethius,* showing the astronomical knowledge of his time. 

Boethius. 
Uuir uuizen. daz tia erda daz uuazer umbe gat. unde der fierdo tell nahor obenan 
erbarotist. an demo sizzent tie mennisken. Ter himel leret unsih. taz iz ter fierdo teil 
ist. AUe die astronomiam chunnen. die bechennent taz agquinoctialis zona den himel 
rehto in zuei teilet. unde fone iro ze dien uzerosten polls iouueder halb eben f ilo ist ih 
melno ze demo septentrlonall. unde ze demo australi. So 1st tiu erda sinuuelbiu. 
unde ist uns unchunt. ube si. undenan erbarot si. obenan dar si erbarot ist. tar sizzent 
tie liute ab aethioplco oceano. usque ad sclthlcum oceanum. Tie ferrost sizzent ad 
austrum. die sizzent In aethlopicls Insulls. tien ist tlu sunna obe houbete. so si gat 

iizer arlete In uerno tempore, unde so si beginnet kan in libram in autumno Graffs 

Sprachschatz, pref. p. xxxvi. 

LITERAL ENGLISH. 

We know that the water goes round the earth, and the fourth part above is bare ; 
on it sit the men. The heaven learns (teaches) us that it is the fourth part. All, 
who know astronomy, confess that the equinoctial zone divides the heaven right in 
two, and that from it to the uttermost pole of each half is an equal distance, I mean 
to the north, and to the south. So is the earth round, and it is to us unknown, if it 
be bare underneath ; above, where it is bare, there sit the people from the Ethiopian 
ocean to the Scythian ocean. The farthest sitting to the south, they sit in Ethiopian 
islands ; to those is the sun over head, when he goes out of Aries in the spring, and 
when he begins to go into Libra in autumn. 

19. Parable of the Sower, in old High-German, taken from MS. 
fragments of Homilies in the Imperial Library at Vienna, written at the 
beginning of the 11th century, and printed in Lamhecsii Commentariis, 
&c. 2nd edit. 1. 1 1 , p. 550 : Schilter, vol. i. p. 76, at the end. 

Lk. 8 Unser Herro der almahtige Got der sprichet in desmi Euangelio, suenne 

der acchirman salt sinen samen, so fellit sumelichis pi demo uuege, unde uuirdit 
firtretin, oder is essant die uogile. 

* Boethius de consolatione philosophiae, 12mo. Lugd. Batavorum, 1656. p. 42, Prosa 7. — 
King Alfred's Anglo-Saxon Translation, with an excellent English Version by Cardale, 
ch. xviii. 1, p. 95. 



CXXXIV 



HIGH-GERMAN — ST. ANNO, A.D. 1090. 



20. WiLLERAM was educated at Fulda. He died 1085, abbot of the 
monastery Ebersberg in Bavaria, and probably composed his Paraphrase 
between 1070 and 1084. MSS. are preserved at Vienna, Breslaw, 
Stuttgard, Einsicdeln, published with this title, Willerami Abbatis in 
Canticum Canticorum paraphrasis, Latina et veteri lingua Francica, ed. 
P. Merula, Leyden, 1598, and by F. Fogelin, Worms, 1631, and in 
Schilter's Thes. Also by Hoffman, Breslaw, 1827. 

Sage mir uuine min. uua du dine scaf uueidenes. uua du ruouues umbe mitten dag. 
Umbe uuaz biten ih des? Daz ih niet Irre ne beginne gen. unter den corteron dinero 
geseUon. Kunde mir o sponse. den ih mit alien chreften minno. uuer die uerae fidei 
doctores sin. die dine scaf uuisen ad pascua uitae. unte die solich sin. daz du in iro 

herzen dir hereberga machest. unte sie beskirmes ab omni feruore temptationis 

Schilter's Thes. vol. i. p. 6, in fine. 

LITERAL GERMAN. 

Sage mir, mein Geliebter, wo du deine Schafe weidest, wo du ruhest um Mittag. 
Warum warte ich dessen ? dass ich nicht irre noch fehl gehe unter den Hiirden deiner 
Gesellen. Verkiinde mir, o Gespons, den ich aus alien Kraften liebe, wer die verge 
fidei doctores sind, die deine Schafe weisen ad pascua vitae, und die solche sind, dass 
du in ihren Herzen Herberge machest und sie beschirmst ab omnifervore temptationis. 

VERBAL ENGLISH VERSION. 

Say to me, my beloved, where thou pasturest thy sheep, where thou restest at 
midday. For what ask I this? That I may not err, nor begin to go among the 
number of thy companions. Inform me, O bridegroom, whom I love with all might, 
who are the teachers of true faith, who show thy sheep to the pastures of life, and 
who are such that you make dwellings in their hearts, and shelter them from all heat 
of temptation. 

21. St. Anno. The praises of the archbishop of Cologne, St. Anno, 
who died 1075, concludes this period. The writer is unknown, but this 
poem was probably composed, soon after St. Anno's death, before the end of 
the 1 1th century. It is in rhyme, and consists of forty-nine stanzas, written, 
as Herzog says, in the Low-Rhinish or Francic dialect (Nieder Rhinisch). 
Meusel calls it Alemannic. Fragments of this poem were first published 
by Martin Opitz, 1639, who discovered them at Breslaw. The MS. is 
lost. It was printed by Schilter and others, and in 1816 by Goldmann. 
All the latter editions depend on the first incorrect publication. 



MAN S INGRATITUDE. 

Mit bluomin cierint sich diu lant, 
mit loube dekkit sich der wait ; 
daz wilt habit den sinin ganc, 
scone ist der vogil sane : 
ein iwelich ding die e noch havit, 
diemi got van erist virgab : 
newaere die zuei gescephte, 
di her gescuoph die bezziste, 
die virk^rten sich in die dobeheit 
dannin huobin sich diu leith. 
Wackernagel, '^. 117. 



LITERAL GERMAN. 

Mit Blumen zieren sich die Lande, 

Mit Laube decket sich der Wald, 

Das Wild hat seinen Gang 

Schon ist der Vogelsang ; 

Ein jeglich Ding das Gesetz noch hat, 

Das ihm Gott zuerst gab. 

Nur die zwei Geschopfe, 

Die er schuf die besten. 

Die verkehrten sich in die Tollheit, 

Davon erhub sich das Leid. 



HIGH-GERMAN — MINNESINGERS, NIBELUNGEN, A.D. 1150. CXXXV 

POETICAL VERSION. 

The flow'rs adorn the fields, Save the two latest born, 

Green leaves bedeck the groves, Whom noblest, best, he framed ; 

The beasts their courses run. They spurn his high command, 

Soft rings the sweet bird's song : And turn to folly's course, 

All things obey the laws From hence began the pain.* 
That God creating gave, 

22. Te Deum of the \2th century. '\ 

Prof. Graff observes that the MS. is of the 12th century. It was 
originally the property of the monastery of St. Maria at Windberg, and 
contains many very rare v^rords and expressions. The following extract 
is from the MS. in the Royal Library at Munich. It is inserted in the 
Diutiska of Prof, C. G, Graff, vol. iii. No. III. p. 459. 

Daz lobesanch dere saligen bischoue den si sungen 

Ymmcs beatorum episcoporum Ambrosii ef Augustini quern cantaverunt 

deme herren wehsellichen unter in fure die becherde des uileheiteren lerares 
domino vicissim inter se pro conversione preclari doctoris 

unde uateres, Dih got wir loben Dih herren wir ueriehen dih ewigen 
et patris Augustini. Te deum laudamus te dominum confitemur. Te ceternum 
uater eUiu diu erde erwirdit. Dir alle engile dir die himile unde alle 
patrem omnis terra veneratur. Tihi omnes angeli tibi coeli et universes 

gualte Dir die guizzeneuolle. unde die minnefiurige mit untuallicher stimme 

potestates. Tibi cherubim et seraphim incessabili voce 

furruoffent. Heiliger heiliger heiliger herro got dere here. Voile sint himile 
proclamant. Sanctus, sancfus, sanctus dominus deus sabaoth. Pleni sunt cceli 
unde erde dere magenchrefte eren diner. 
et terra maiestatis glorice tucR. 

MiNNESINGERS.J 

23. German national 'poetry and prose compositions, from the \2th 
to the \^th century. The HohenstaufFen or Suabian race of German 
emperors w^ere great admirers and promoters of literature. Frederic I., 
Henry VI., Frederic II. and Conrad IV. were themselves poets, as well as 
the patrons of Minnesingers. A few of the chief Minnesingers and other 
authors will no-w be mentioned. 

24. The Nibelungen Lied, or Song of the Nibelungen, is one of the 
most ancient and perfect Suabian epic poems. Pelegrin, bishop of Passau, 
who died in 991, is supposed to have collected the story of the Nibelungen, 
and to have written it in Latin by the aid of his scribe Conrad. The 
present poem is probably founded upon the Latin, and apparently written 
by Henry of Ofterdingen, about the middle of the 12th century. The 
following specimen and the EngUsh version are from the interesting 

* This flowing and spirited translation, with some others that follow, is taken from Lays 
of the Minnesingers, Svo. Longman, London, 1825, a valuable little work, which is full of 
interesting information respecting the Minnesingers, and contains many beautiful specimens 
of their poetry. 

t See § 4, for a specimen of the Te Deum in German of the 8th century. 
X Minne love, Sanger singer. 



CXXXVi HIGH-GERMAN — MINNESINGERS, RISPACH, A.D. 1207. 



work, "Lays of the Minnesingers y^ p. 114: the substance of the extract 
will be found in the edition of van der Hagen, 8vo. Berlin, 1807, p. 47, 
verse 1145. 



SONG OF THE NIBELUNGEN. 

Sam der liehte mane 
Vor der sternen stat, 
Der schin so luterliche 
Ab' den wolchen gat, 
Dem stunt si nu geliche 
Vor maneger vrowen gut ; 
Des wart da wol gehohet 
Den zieren helden der mut. 



FREE ENGLISH VERSION. 

And as the beaming moon 
Rides high the stars among. 
And moves with lustre mild 
The mirky clouds along ; 
So, midst her maiden throng, 
Up rose that matchless fair ; 
And higher swell' d the soul 
Of many a hero there. 



25. Walter tJo;2 <?er Foge/2^eic?e,ofThurgau in Switzerland, flourished 
from 1190 to 1227. 



SUMMER. 

Do der sumer komen was, 
Und die bluomen dur das gras 
Wunneklich entsprungen, 
Und die vogel sungen, &c. 



FREE ENGLISH VERSION. 

'Twas summer — through the opening grass 
The joyous flowers up sprang, 
The birds in all their diif' rent tribes 
Loud in the woodlands sang. 

Minnesingers^ p. 206, 



26. Grave Chunrad von Kilchberg or Kirchberg, of Suabia, wrote in 
the latter part of the 12th century. 



ON MAY. 

Meige ist komen in du lant, 

Der uns ie von sorgen bant : 

Kinder, kinder, sint gemant ! 

Wir sun schouwen wunne manigvalde ; 

Uf der liehten heide breit 

Da hat er uns fur gespreit 

Manig bluemelin gemeit. 

Erst bezeiget in dem gruenen walde ; 

Da hort man die nahtegal, 

Uf dem bluenden rise, 

Singen lobelichen schal, &c. 



FREE ENGLISH VERSION. 

May, sweet May, again is come, 
May that frees the land from gloom 
Children, children, up and see 
All her stores of jollity ! 
On the laughing hedgerow's side 
She hath spread her treasures wide ; 
She is in the greenwood shade, 
Where the nightingale hath made 
Every branch and every tree 
Ring with her sweet melody. 

Minnesingers^ p. 141. 



27. Henry Rispach, commonly styled Der tugepdhafte Schreiber the 
virtuous Clerk i lived about 1207. 



THE LOVER S LAMENT. 

Es ist in den wait gesungen. 
Das ich ir genaden klage 
Du min herze hat betwungen 
Und noh twinget alle tage. 

Mir ist sam der nahtegal, 
Dii so vil vergebne singet, 
Und ir doh ze leste bringet 
Niht wan schaden ir suezer schal. 



FREE ENGLISH TRANSLATION. 

The woodlands with my songs resound, 

As stm I seek to gain 
The favours of that lady fair 

Who causeth all my pain. 

My fate is like the nightingale's 
That singeth all night long, 

While still the woodlands mournfully 
But echo back her song. 

Minnesingers, p. 144. 



HIGH-GERMAN—MINNESINGERS, NIFEN, 123.5. 



CXXXVll 



28. WiRNT VON Grafenberg wrote a poem styled, Wigalois, about 
1212. MSS. are preserved at Cologne, Leyden, Bremen, and Hamburg. 
A very valuable edition was published in 8vo. by Benecke, Berlin, 
1819. 



Artus Hqfhaltung. 

Ez was hie vor, so man seit, 

Ein Kunech der ie nach Eren streit ; 

Des Name witen was erkant. 

Britanie hiez sin Lant ; 

Selbe hiez er Artus. 

Ze Karidol da het er Hus. 

Mit solhen Freuden stunt ez do, 

Daz uns daz nu machet fro. 



Court of King Arthur. 

Heretofore there was, as men say, 
A king who always for honour fought, 
Whose name was widely known. 
Britain was called his land, 
He himself was called Arthur. 
At Karidol there had he a house. 
With such delights it stood there 
That it now gives us pleasure. 

Herzog, p. 79. 



29. GoTFRiT VON NiFEN, a Suabian nobleman, wrote about the year 
1235. The following specimen is taken from Benecke's Additions to 
Bodmer^s Fersuche uber die alte schuahische Poesie, Zurich, 1748. 



SPRING. 

Nu woluf ! griissen 
Wir den siissen, 
Der uns bussen 
Wil des winters pin ; 
Der uns wil bringen 
Vogelin singen, 
Bliimen springen, 
Und der sunnen schin. 
Da man sach e 
Den kalten sne. 
Da siht man gras, 
Von touwe nas, 
Bruevent das 
Blumen unde der kle. 



FREE ENGLISH VERSION. 

Up, up, let us greet 

The season so sweet, 

For winter is gone ; 
And the flowers are springing, 
And little birds singing, 
Their soft notes ringing, 

And bright is the sun ! 

Where all was drest 

In a snowy vest, 
There grass is growing. 
With dew-drops glowing, 

And flowers are seen 

On beds so green. 

Minnesingers, p. 155. 



30. A NOTICE of the following didactic poems in the old High-German 
dialect cannot be omitted. 1. Der Kdnig Tyrol von Schotten und sein 
sohn Fridebrant, King Tyrol of Scotland and his son Fridebrant, 
2. Der Winsbeke an sinen sun, Winsbeke to his son. 3. Du(i) Wins- 
bekin an ir Tohter, Winsbekin to her daughter. These three are by 
unknown authors, but they most likely belong to the beginning of the 
13th century. They are printed in Schilter, vol. ii. ; and in Manesse's 
Collection, 4. Frigedanks Bescheidenheit, Sentiments and Sentences. 
Whether Frigedank be the real or fictitious name of the author, is very 
doubtful. The poem was written before 1230. Published by Sebastian 
Brand, Strasburg, 1.508, 4to., and lately by W. Grimm. These didactic 
poems, particularly the latter, are distinguished by elevated and philo- 
sophical views of life. 

t 



CXXXviii HIGH-GERMAN — SCHWABEN-SPIEGEL, 1250. 

DER WINSBEKE. LITERAL ENGLISH VERSION. 

Sun ellu wisheit ist ein wiht. Son all wisdom is nothing, 

Du herze sin ertrahten kan, (Thy heart can do without it) 

Hat er ze Gote minne niht, If to God it has no love, 

Vnd siht in niht mit vorhten an. And do not look to him in fear. 

Schilter's Thes. vol. ii. p. 20, in fine. 

FRIGEDANKS BESCHEIDENHEIT. LITERAL ENGLISH VERSION. 

Gote dienen ane Wank God serving without irresolution 

Deist aller Wisheit Anvank. That is of all wisdom the beginning. 

Der hat sich selben betrogen He has deceived himself 

Und zimbert uf den Regenbogen. Who builds upon the rainbow. 

31. Schwaben-Spiegel, or Suabian Mirror, the Alemannic provincial 
law, probably compiled in the 13th century. Published in Schiller's 
Thes. vol. ii. 

Introduction to the Laws. 

Herre Got himelischer Vater, durch din mUte gute geschufte du den menschen 
mit drivaltiger wirdikeit. 

2. Diu erst ist daz er nach dir gebUdet ist. 

3. Daz ist auch ain alz groz uuirdikeit, der dir aUez menschen kunne ymmer • 
sunderlichen danken sol, uuan dez haben uuir groz reht, Vil lieber herre himelischer 
Vater sit du unz zu diner hohen gothait also uuirdiclich geedelt hast. 

4. Diu ander uuirdikeit ist da du Herr almachtiger Schopfer den menschen zu 
geschaffen hast, daz du alle die uuelt die sunnen und den maun die sterne und diu 
vier elemente, fiur, uuazzer, luft, erde, die vogel in den luften, die vische in dem 
uuage, diu tier in dem uualde, die uuurme in der erde, golt, silber, edelgestain und 
der edeln uuurtze suzzer smak, der plumen liehtiu varuue, der baume frucht korn und 
alle creatur, daz haust du herre aUez dem menschen ze nutze und ze dienst geschaffen 
durch die triuuue und durch die minne die du zu dem menschen hetest. 

5. Diu dritt uuirdikait ist da du Herr den menschen mit geedelt hast, daz ist diu daz 
der mensche die uuirde und ere und freude und uuunn die du selb bist ymmer mit 
dir euuiclich niezzen sol. 

LITERAL ENGLISH. 

Lord God, heavenly father, by thy kind goodness, Greatest thou man with 
threefold dignity. 

2. The first is, that he after thee is formed. 

3. That is such a great dignity, for which all mankind always particularly shall 
thank thee, for which we have great right (obligation), much beloved Lord, heavenly 
father, since thou to thy high Godhead hast so honourably ennobled us. 

4. The second dignity to which thou, Lord, almighty Creator, hast formed man, 
is that thou, all the world, the sun and moon, the stars, and the four elements, fire, 
water, air, earth, the fowls in the air, the fish in the waves, the animals m the wood, 
the worms on the earth, gold, silver, and precious stones, and the sweet flavour of 
costly spices, the shining colour of flowers, the fruit of the trees, corn, and all 
creatures, hast, the Lord, created for the use and service of man, by the favour and 
love which thou hadst to man. 

5. The third dignity with which thou, Lord, hast ennobled man is this, that man 
shall enjoy the dignity and honour and pleasure and delight which thou thyself art 
(hast) always and eternally with thee. 



HIGH-GERMAN — PARABLE OF THE SOWER, 1462. CXXxix 

32. The Edelstein, or the Genii a collection of fables by Boner, 
a Dominican monk whose name is often mentioned in documents from 
1324 — 1349. An excellent edition of the Edelstein, with a glossary, is 
given by Prof. G. F. Beneke, of Gottingen, published at Berlin, 1816, 
8vo. 

Von einem Hund und einem Esel. Of a Dog and an Ass. 

{Von unbedachter Narrekeit.) {Unthinking folly.) 

Wei rechter Tore des begert, He (is) a complete fool, who asks 

Des sin Nature in nicht gewert, What his nature does not grant, 

Der mag des wol entgelten. He may for it well suffer. 

Dar zu sol man in schelten. Besides that we shall blame him, 

Der sich des Dinges nimet an, Who undertakes a thing, 

Das sin Geslechte nie gewan. Which his species never acquired. 

Was du Nature hat gegeben. What nature has given 

Dem mag der Mensch kum wider streben. Man may hardly oppose. 

Herzog, p. 144. 

33. The following specimens show, from the year 1400, the gradual 
formation of the modern German. As best indicating the change in the 
language, the extracts are chiefly given from the same passage of the 
Scriptures. 

34. The Gospels {Evangelien uber at daz Jar) from a MS. at 
Munich of the 13th century. 

Lk, viii. 3 — (Do ein michel Menig chom zu Jesu, und von den Steten eilten zu 
im, do sprach er ei Bispel :) Der Ackerman gi aus seen sinen Samen — 4. Und do er 
ge seet, do viel ein Sam pi dem Weg und ward vertreten und gazzen in di Vogel. 

35. The Epistles and Gospels in High-German (Hoch-Teutsch), 
** LectioneSy Epistolce et Evan gelia per annunij'' k.i>. 1431, from a MS. 
at Munich. 

Lk. viii. 3 (Do ain michel menig cham zue iesu vnd von den stetten eilten zv im 

do sprach er ain peichspill) der Akcherman gie aus saen seinen samen. — 4. Vnd do er 
gesaett, do viell ain sam peij dem weg vnd ward vertreten und azzn in auch die vogel. 

36. Gospels for every day of the year {Evangelien auf alle Tage des 
Jahres), from a MS. at Munich, about 1450. Domin. Sexagesima. 

Lk. viii. 3 — Do ein michl menig chdm zu jhm vnd vo de stetn eylten zu jm do 
sprach er ein peyspill d' ackerman gye aus sand sein same, — 4. vnd do er gesat do 
viel ein same pey de weg vnd wart vertretten vnd gassn jn auch die vogl. 

37. Ain Postil uherdij Evangelij\ from a MS. at Munich, about 1460. 
Lk. viii. 3. — (Vnd da das volck nu chom zu im da hueb er auf und sagt in ain 

peyspil vnd sprach) Es gie ain man aus zu ainen zeitn vnd sat, 4. vnd da er nu ward 
seen da viel ain sam zu dem weg vnd der ward vertreten vnd dartzu komen die vogel 
und assn den samsn. 

38. Bible in High-German {teuische Bibel). One of the earliest 
Bibles, but without date; some say it was printed at Mayence, 1462, 
others at Strasburg, 1466. 

Mk. iv. 3. — Hort secht der Seer gieng aus ze seen. 4. Vnd do er seet : der ein 
viel bey dem Weg, vnd die Vogel des Himels kamen vnd assen jn. 



CXl HIGH-GERMAN — PARABLE OF THE SOWER, 1522. 

39. A Plenarium {Sammlung der Episteln und Evangelien), Augs- 
burg, 1473. 

Mk. iv. 3 Er get auss der da saen will seinen samen vn sat, 4. Vnd als er saet, 

das ein felt in den weg. vnd wirt vertratten, vnd die Vogel des hymels die essent es 
aufF. 

40. Plenarium, Augsburg s 1474. 

Mk. iv. 3 — Delist aussgangen der da seet zu seen seinen somen, — 4. Vn als er seet 
da ist einer gefallen an den weg vnnd ist getretten worden, vnnd auch die vogel 
des himels habendt den gegessen. 

41. Bible (teutsch), Augsburg, 1476. 

Mk. iv — Hort secht d' da seet der ist aussgegange ze seen. Vnd da er seet. der 
ein viel bey dem weg vn die vogel des hymels kamen vnd assen in. 

42. Bible {teutsch), Augsburg, 1487. 

Mk. iv — Hort. secht. der do seet, der ist aussgegangen ze seen. Vnd do er seet. 
der ein viel bey dem weg. vnd die vogel des hymmels kamen vnd assen jn. 

43. Bible, printed by H. Schonsperger, Augsburg, 1490. 

Mk. iv. — Hort. sehet. der da saet. d' ist aussgegangen ze saen. Vnnd da er saet. 
der ein viel bey dem weg. vnd die vogel des hymmels kamen vnnd assen jn. 

44. Gospels, Strasburg, 1517. 

Lk. viii — Do zuomal als vil volcks gesamme kam zu Jesu, vn vo de stette zu im ylte. 
Jn der zeit da sagt er ine ein gleichniss Der da seiet d' ist vssgangen zu seen seinen 
some. Vn als der seet da ist etlichs gefalle in de weg, vn ist zertrette worden vn die 
vogel des himels haben es gessen. 

45. Dr. Keiserssberg's Postil, Strasburg, 1522. 

Am Sonnentag Sexagesimas. Horet (sprach der her) nement war, der d' do seyet 
ist vssgange zu seyen seine some. Vn so er seyt, ist d' ander som gefalle vff de weg. 
(secus via, uit neben den weg. er wer sust i de acker gefalle) vn ist zertrette worde 
vo den wadleren, vn die fogel des himels seind kumen vn habend den vfpgessen. 

46. New Testament, Zurich, 1524. 

Mk. iv. 3, 4 — Horend zu, sich es gieng ein sayer vss zu sayen, vn es begab sich in 
dem er sayet, fiel etlichs an den weg, do komend die vogel vnder dem himel vnd 
frassends vfF. 

47. Bible, by Dr. I. Eck, Ligolstadt, 1537. 

Mk. iv. 3 Horet zu, Sihe, Ainer der da saiet, gieg auss : zu saien : — 4. Vnd in 

dem er saiet. fiel etlichs an den weg, da kamen die vogel des lufts vnd frassens auf. 

48. New Testament {Deutssch), Wittenberg, 1522. 

Mk. iv. 3 — Horet zu, Sihe, Es, gieng eyn seeman aus zu seen, — 4. vnd es begab 
sich, ynn dem er seet, fiel ettlichs an den weg, da kamen die vogel vnter dem hymel 
vnd frassens auf. 



HIGH-GERMAN — LUTHER's BIBLE, 1545. Cxll 

49. History of the Gospels {Evangelisch Hijstori), by Othmaren 
Nachtgall, Augsburg, 1525. 

Mk. iv. 3 Es was ainer ausgegangen zu seen seynen Somen, — 4. Vnnder dem 

ainer gefallen was aufF den Weg, vn zertretten worden, auch hetten in die Vogel des 
Hymels aufFgessen. 

50. Bible, Zurich, 1530. 

Mk. iv. 3 Horend zu, sihe, es gieng ein Sayer auss ze sayen, — 4. vnd es begab 

sich in dem er sayet, fiel etliches an den wag, do kamend die vogel vnder dem himel, 
vnd frassends auf. 

51. The present German language* (Hoch-Deutsch) has a greater 
affinity to the Alemannic and Francic than to the Platt-Deutsch. This 
inclination towards the High-German, or southerly branch of the German 
dialects, arose from the influence of Luther at the Reformation. Luther 
was Professor of Divinity at Wittenberg, where the high dialect prevailed, 
and in which he wrote his translation of the Bible. The New Testament 
first published in 1523, and the Old Testament from 1523 to 1534, was 
revised and the whole Bible published from 1541 to 1545. This revised 
translation soon became generally known, and the numerous students that 
crowded Wittenberg to benefit by the lectures of Luther, and subse- 
quently dispersed into the different provinces, carried with them this 
High-German version, and a predilection for this dialect. Thus High- 
German became generally known, and was adopted as the language of 
the church, the learned, and the press. This tongue spread with the 
Reformation, and as it advanced in extent it increased in perfection, till 
it has become one of the most cultivated and extensive of all the Gothic 
or Teutonic dialects. It not only prevails in the German confederacy, 
but in the north of Switzerland, Alsace, in a great part of Hungary, 
Transylvania, Bohemia, the kingdom of Prussia, in Schleswick, part of 
Jutland, and in Russia as far north as Courland. Amongst the Germans 
are writers of the first order in every branch of literature and science : 
they are most prolific in the production of new works, nor can any easily 
exceed them in freedom of inquiry, in labour, or erudition. 

52. Bible, by Dr. M. Luther, Wittenberg, 1545. 

Mk. iv. 3 Horet zu ! Sihe, es gieng ein Seeman aus zu seen 4. Vnd es begab 

sich, in dem er seet, fiel etlichs an den Weg, da kamen die Vogel unter dem Himel 
vnd frassens auff. 

53. Der Layen Biblia, by J. Freydang, Frankfort, 1569. 
Lk. viii Es gieng ein Saemann auss seim Hauss, 

Zu s'aen seinen Samen auss, 
Vnd etlichs fiel an weges gstetn, 
Das wurd gentzlich in staub vertretn, 

Vnd die Vogel vnder dem Himml 
Frassen das auff mit eim gewimbl : 
Auff den Felsen fiel etliches, 
Da es auffgieng verdorret es. 

* For the origin of the Germans and their name, see § II. 1, 2, 3, note (f) . 



cxlii 



HIGH-GERMAN — REINEKE DE VOS, 1830. 



54. The Froschmauseler, oder der Frosch und Maiise wunderbare 
Hoflialtung, The court of the frogs and mice, Magdeburg, 1595, 8vo. is 
one of the most remarkable epic poems. It was written by George Rol- 
lenhagen, who was born 1542, at Bernau in Brandenburg, and died 1609, 
when rector of the Latin school of Magdeburg. He attempts to describe 
eternity in the following striking allegory. 



ETERNITY. 

* * * * 

Ewig, Ewig, ist lange Zeit. 
Wer ein Sandberg uns vorgestelt, 
Viel grosser denn die gantze Welt, 
Und ein Vogel all tausend lahr kem, 
Auff einmahl nur ein Kornlein nem, 
Und Gott uns denn erlosen wolt, 
Wenn er das letzte Kornlein holt, 
So wer Hoffnung das uns elende, 
Zwar langsam, aber doch het ein ende. 
Nun bleiben wir iu Gotten Zorn 
Ohn all Hoffnung ewig verlorn. 

Chap. xiii. 



ENGLISH VERSION. 

* * * 



For ever and ever is a long time. 

Were a heap of sand before our eyes, 

Exceeding the whole world in size, 

And a bird ev'ry thousand years should come, 

To take but a single grain therefrom. 

And God would grant deliverance 

When the last grain were taken thence, 

We might have hope that our wretched state, 

Tho' long, might yet stiU terminate. 

But now beneath God's wrath we lie 

Lost, without hope, eternally. 

Morrell. 



55, Bible, Nuremberg, 1703, 1708, &c. 

Mk. iv. 3 — Horet zu, Sihe, es gieng ein Sae-Mann aus zu saen. — 4. Und es begab 
sich, in dem er saete, fiel etliches an den Weg, da kamen die Vogel unter dem 
Himmel, und frassens auf. 



56. New Testament, translated by J. Maria, Passau 
Mk. iv. 3. Horet : siehe, es gieng ein Samann aus zu saen. — 

indem er saete, fiel ein Theil an den Weg, da kamen die Vogel, 

57. A High-German translation of Reineke de Vos 
as the Low-German of Henry van Alkmar, by Dietrich 
Ltineburg, 1830. This extract will not only serve 
modern High-German, but as an example of the 
dialects.* 



, in Bavaria, 1 752. 
4. Und es begab sich, 
und frassen es auf. 

in the same metre 
Wilhelm Soltau, 
as a specimen of 

difference in the 



REINEKE DE VOS. 



Es war an einem Mayentag, 

Wie Blum' und Laub die Knospen brach ; 

Die Krauter sprossten ; froh erklang 

Im Hain der Vogel Lobgesang ; 

Der Tag war schon, und Balsamduft 

Erfullte weit umher die Luft ; 

Als Konig Nobel, der machtige Leu, 

Ein Fest gab, und liess mit Geschrey 

Hoftag verkiinden liberall. 

Da kamen hin mit grossem Schall 
Viel edle Herr'n und stolze Gesellen ; 
Es war kaum moglich sie zu zahlen. 
Der Kranich Liitke, Matz der Staar 



Und Marks der Haher kamen sogar ; 
Denn Nobel woUte Herr'n und Sassen 
Ein frohes Gastmahl feyern lassen ; 
Darum er aUes her berief, 
Was ging, was kroch, was flog, was lief, 
Thier' und Gevogel, gross und klein, 
Bis auf Reinhard den Fuchs allein, 
Der sich so frevelhaft benommen, 
Dass er nicht durft' nach Hofe kommen. 
Wer Bbses thut, der scheu't das Licht 
So ging's auch diesem falschen Wicht ; 
Er hatt' am Hofe schlimmen Geruch, 
Drum er zu kommen Bedenken trug. 



* See Dutch, VI. 17; and Low-German, V. 26. 



HIGH-GERMAN — PROVINCIAL DIALECTS, 1827. cxliii 

5S. A free High -German translation of Henry van Alkmar's Reineke 
de Vos by Goethe. 

Pfingsten, das liebliche Fest, war gekommen ; Es grunten und bliithen 

Feld und Wald ; auf Hiigeln und Hohn, in Biischen und Hecken 

Uebten ein frohliches Lied die neuermunterten Vogel ; 

Jede Wiese sprosste von Blumen in duftenden Griinden, 

Festlich heiter glanzte der Himmel und farbig die Erd. 

Nobel, der Konig, versammelt den Hof ; und seine Vasallen 

Eilen gerufen herbey mit grossem Geprange ; da kommen 

Viele stolze Gesellen von alien Seiten und Enden, 

Liitke, der Kranich, und Markart der Haher und alle die Besten. 

Denn der Konig gedenkt mit alien seinen Baronen 

Hof zu halten in Feyer und Pracht ; er lasst sie berufen 

Alle mit einander, so gut die grossen als kleinen. 

Niemand soUte fehlen ! und dennoch fehlte der eine, 

Reinecke Fuchs, der Schelm ! der viel begangenen Frevels 

Halben des Hofs sich enthielt. So scheuet das bose Gewissen 

Licht und Tag, es scheute der Fuchs die versammleten Herren. 

59. The Modern German of 1835 only differs in orthography from 
the first edition of Luther's Bible of 1545.* 

High-German Provincial Dialects. 

60. The following are a few specimens of the various provincial dialects 
spoken in Upper Germany in 1827. 

61. Swiss provincial dialect in the canton Zurich, 1827. 

Mk. iv. 3 — Losat uf, as ischt en Ackhersma uffs Fald ganga ge saen 4. Und da 

er gsat hat, ischt bbbis a d' Strass gfalla, da sind d' Vogel cho und hands ufgrassa. 

62. Swiss provincial dialect in the canton Uri, 1827. 

Mk. iv. 3 Hbrt zuo, ksoscht, a Ma ischt ussganga go sa'i'a ; 4. und wie 'ne sait, 

falt'n bpis an die Strass, da sind die Vogel cho, und hand's aweg gefrassa. 

63. SuABiAN provincial dialect near the Alps^ 1827. 

Mk. iv. 3 Losat und luogad, as ischt a Sayer ussi ganga z' saiid ; — 4. Und wie 

ear g'sait heat, ischt a Doal uf a Weag, g'falla, den henn-da d' Vogel g'noh', und 
ufg'freassa. 

64. SuABiAN provincial dialect about Stuttgard, 1827. 

Mk. iv. 3. — Hbhret me an : A Bauer ischt zum saa naus ganga ufs Feld 4. Abbes 

vom rumg' streuta Sohma ischt uf da Weeg g'falla, do sind d' Vogel komma, und 
hends g'fressa. 

Q>5. SuABiAN provincial dialect about Ulm, 1827. 

Mk. iv. 3.— Hairet zue, seand, es ischt a Saema ausganga z' saea 4. Und wia ar 

g'saet haut, do ischt a Thoil an Weag g'falla, da send d' Vegel komma und hannds 
aufg' fressa. 

66. Alsacian dialect about Sirasburg, 1827. 

Mk. iv. 3 — Hert, siet der Ackersmann esch iissgange zu'm Saije 4. Un wie er 

g'saijit hatt, esch eins (ebbs) ouf de Waij g'falle ; da sind d' Vogel komme ounterm 
Himmfel, un bans oufFg'frasse. 

* See § 51, 52. 



CXiiv HIGH-GERMAN — PROVINCIAL DIALECTS, 1827. 

67. Saltzburg dialect, 1827. 

Mk. iv. 3 — Hoscht's : Schau, 6s gang a Samon aus zum San. — 4. Und 6s gab si, 
indem a sat, void a Doal an dem Wog, da kaman d' Vogl und frass'ns auf. 

68. TiROLESE dialect, 1827. 

Mk. iv. 3 — Da hearts a Mai zue ; as ischt a Mai a Paur ze san aussi gangn 

4. und as ischt g'schbch'n, wie ear g' sant hat, ischt oan Thail afFn Wog g' fall'n, und 
da hann d' Fogl kemmen, und hib'ns afFg'frossen. 

69. Bavarian dialect about Eichstadt, 1 827. 

Mk. 4. 3 — Iza schau ! a Baur is zum san ganga 4. Und do, wi-a gsat hat, iss 

epas an Weg hing'falln ; des hSbn d' Vogl wek g'fressn. 

70. Bavarian dialect about Munich, 1827. 

Mk. iv. 3 — Lossts enk sogiig ! a Moi is a Baur aufs Sahn' naus ganga 4. Und 

wia r-a denn do g'saht hot, is e'am a Thoai Samma-r-ann Weg no gfoin ; do sann d' 
Vogl vonn Himmi ro kemma, und hammatn aufg'frbssn. 

71. Bavarian dialect about Nuremberg, 1827. 

Mk. iv. 3 — Hbirt zou, segt, es iss a Bauer (a Saemoh) ausganga z'saea. — 4. Und 
dau hauls es si zoutrign, wbi er g'sat hlut, iss etli's an Weeg g'falln ; da senn die 
Viigel unterm Himmel kumma und hSbens afg'fressn. 

72. Dialect about Frankfort on the Maine, (Sachsenhausen), 1827. 

Mk. iv. 3 Hihrt zou, Sich, es gung e Mol a Sihmann enausser z' sihn. — 4. Unn 

do hot sech's begawwe, wai er gesiht hot, fail Epas d'rvun an'n Wag ; do senn (sain) 
di Vigel unnerm Hemmel kumme, unn hlwwe's uffgefresse. 

^73. Dialect of Wetteravia, or the district enclosed by the Sahn, 
Rhine, and Maine, 1827. 

Mk. iv. 3 Hirt zou ! Sich, es geng e mohl e Sehmann naus, der wullt sihe, — 

4. Onn wei e set', do feil a Dal uf de Wek ; da kohme de Vigel onnerm Himmel onn 
frossens uf. 

74. Hessian dialect about Kassel, 1827. 

Mk. iv. 3 Hehrt zu, sich, es gink en Sehmann us ze sehen. 4. Un es begab 

;sich, wie ha (he) sehte, fiel etliches uf den Wak ; do kamen de Vaggel unner dem 
Himmel und frassens uf. 

75. High-Saxon dialect about Leipsic, 1827. 

Mk. iv. 3 Hurt zu saht ! 's gung a mal a Siamann aus zu sian. — 4. Un da ha 

siate, da feel eeniges an'n Wag ; da kamen de Vegel (Veggel) unggern Himmel, un 
frassens uf. 

76. High-Saxon dialect about Ansbach, 1827. 

Mk. iv. 3. — Hart zu ! sich, es gieng a Soama aufs Soa aus 4. und es iss 

g' seheg'n, indemm ehr sate, fiel Etlichs an den Weeg. Doa kamm die Viegel 
unt'rn Himmel und frassens auf. 



cxlv 



XI.-SCANDINAVIAN LITERATURE,* INCLUDING A SKETCH OF THE LAN^ 
GUAGES OF ICELAND, DENMARK, NORWAY, AND SWEDEN. 

I. Iceland has been supposed to be the remote Thule f of Virgil, 
Pliny, and other classical authors ; but it is more probable, that when 
they mention Thule, they refer to part of South Norway, probably the 
province of Tellemark. It is denominated Thyle } by king Alfred in 
his translation of Boethius, and Thila § in his Orosius. The cluster of 
islands called Ferroes were discovered by Scandinavian navigators at an 
early period, and in a. d. 861, Naddod, a Norwegian, was driven by 
storms on the coast of Iceland, which, from the snow, he named Snoeland. 
Soon after, Gardar Svarf arson, a Swede, by circumnavigation, ascertained 
it to be an island, and named it Gardarsholm, or the island of Gardar ;\\ 
it has, however, become generally known by the descriptive name 
Iceland.^ 

2. Harald Hdrfager, or the Fairhaired, subduing all the petty kings 
of Norway, obtained the supreme power about A. d. 863, and continued 
king of Norway till his death in 934. Some of the independent and high- 
spirited nobles spurned the usurped authority of Harald, and when. In 
their deadly feuds, they had slain an adversary, or in some other way 
broken the laws, rather than submit to Harald, they fled to Iceland, 
a land of prodigies, where subterraneous fires burst through the frozen 
soil, and boiling springs shoot up amidst eternal snows ; where the 
powerful genius of liberty, and the no less powerful genius of poetry, have 
given most brilliant proofs of the energies of the human mind at the 
remotest confines of animated nature.** Among those who first fled to 
this land of freedom, we have, in 874, a record of Ingolf, the son of 
a Norwegian Jarl, Comes, or Earl, and his brother-in-law Hjorleif, who 
landed on the promontory on the south-east coast, still called Ingolf- 
shodi. In the next century, Thornvald with his son Erik, surnamed 
Raudi or the red,tt escaped to Iceland. In the space of 50 or 60 years 

* This short sketch is much indebted to the important works published by The Royal 
Society of Northern Antiquaries, Copenhagen, a Society which claims the especial 
attention of Englishmen. While too much praise cannot be given to the Professors Finn 
Magnusen and Rafn, as well as to the late Professor Rask, and the other active members of 
this institution, for their erudite publications, feelings of the highest respect and the warmest 
gratitude must ever be excited, when the author recollects the constant literary communica- 
tions, and the very friendly assistance of Dr. Rafn and Dr. Rask. An account of part of 
Professor Rafn's valuable works will be found in § 17, 18, and 19. 

t The ultima Thule of Virgil, Georg. i. 30, and Pliny, iv. 16. 

X Bt. 29, 3; Card. p. 166, 1. § Ors. 1, 1 ; Bar. p. 31, 1. 

II Islands Landnamabok, sive Liber originum Islandiae, I. 1. I'slendinga Sogur, I. p. 25, 26. 
Schoening, Norges Riges, Historie, vol. ii. p. 101. Wheaton's Hist, of Northmen, p. 17. 

^ Icl is ice, land land. Dr. Ingram thinks, in Orosius, Bar. 25, 4, Ira-land ought to be Isa- 
land. Inaugural Led. p. 79, note q. — Isa-land is the reading adopted by Professor Rask. 

** Malte Brunts Geog. vol. v. p. 98. 

tt Landndmabok, i. 6 — 8. Schoening, vol. i. p. 107. Malte Brunts Geog. vol. v. p. 98. 



Cxlvi SCANDINAVIAN— ICELANDIC SKALDS. 

the inhabitable parts of Iceland were occupied by refugees from Norway, 
who brought with them their families and a numerous retinue of depen- 
dants. Here they were amply repaid for their hardships and toil, in this 
severe clime, by the full enjoyment of liberty and independence ; here 
they imported their language^ the old Danish, their rites of heathen 
worship, and their civil institutions. They established a great national 
assembly, held annually, where all freeholders had a right to be present. 
This assembly bore a great re'semblance to the Anglo-Saxon Witena- 
gemot, and was called Al\)ing* The president of this meeting was 
elected for life, and was denominated Ldgsoguma^rf or Promulgator of 
the law. Iceland continued this species of government, or republic, for 
about three centuries, that is, till a.d. 1275, when it became subject to 
the kings of Norway. Christianity was introduced into Iceland about the 
end of the 10th century, and was established in 1016. 

3. Iceland, in its pagan state, had a literature, a poetry, and mytho- 
logy, peculiarly its own. The Icelanders preserved their learning and 
history in oral tradition, by means of their Skalds^ who were at once 
poets and historians. These Skalds were a sort of travelling minstrels, 
who composed and recited the praises of kings and heroes in verse, and 
continually migrated from one northern country to another. They were 
the chroniclers, and often the companions of kings, attended them in their 
conflicts, and thus, from their presence at the scenes they had to record, 
they were able to give a lively and faithful description. In the Icelandic 
language a list is kept of the 230 chief Skalds or poetical historians from 
Ragnar Lodbrok to Valdemar II. amongst whom are several crowned 
heads, and celebrated warriors. I| 

4. A Saga-man § recalled the memory of past events in prose narratives 
as the Skalds did in verse. The memory of past transactions was thus 
transmitted from age to age by the poets or Skalds, and the Saga-men or 
story-tellers, till the introduction of writing, gave them a fixed and durable 
record. 

5. The literature, mythology, and history of the Icelanders, and the 
old Scandinavians in general, in their pagan and early christian state, are 
chiefly preserved in the poetic or elder Edda,1I the prose or younger 
Edda, and the Sagas, the i^o/a, the HeimsJeringla, the Konungsskuggsjd, 
and the Landndmahdk. A short account of these works, and their 
various editions, may be useful.** 



♦ ping in Icelandic signifies forum, conventus, a court of justice, an assize ; and al|?ing a 
general meeting, or assize. 

t Id. Lbgsaga /. {gen. logsogu) recitatio legum, from log law ; saga a telling, speaking ; ma^r 
a man, the man propounding the law, 

X Skald from Id. skalld a poet. \\ Wheaton's History of Northmen, p. 51. 

§ Saga historia, narratio ; matSr ^e«. manns. ace. mann man, that is, a story-teller. 

^ Edda a grandmother, quasi prima mater ethnicae religionis. 

** A minute account of the Icelandic work's which are published may be found in " Lexicon 
Islandico Latino- Danicum Biornonis Haldersonii, curd R. K. Raskii, editum Havnice," 4to. 1814. 



SCANDINAVIAN — S^EMUND's AND SNORRE's EDDAS. cxlvii 

6. SiEMUND Stgfussen, a clergyman, born in Iceland ift 1056, was the 
first compiler of the Poetic Edda. He appears to have written some of 
these poetic effusions from the recital of contemporary Skalds, and to have 
collected others from manuscripts. 

The Icelandic text of the poetic Edda was published in 4to. at Copenhagen in 1787, 
with a Latin translation, notes, and glossary. A second volume was not printed till 
1818, and a third in 1828, by Professor Finn Magnusen. Professor Rask and the 
Rev. Mr. Afzelius, in 1818, published, at Stockholm, the original of this Edda, carefully 
accented, and distinguishing i from J, u from v, and o from o. 

7. The Poetic Edda contains the Volu-spa* which gives an account of the creation 
of the universe, and the gods and men who inhabited it. The Grou-galdr or Groa's 
Magic Song. The Solarljoi or Song of the Sun which is almost entirely S^mund's 
own composition, containing ideas of a future life, evidently derived from a christian 
source. The Vajpru^nis-mdi, which is a sort of poetic dialogue between Odin and 
a famous giant. 

8. The GrImnis-ma'l, or the Song of Grimner, describing the habitations of the 
deities. The Alvis-mal, Hyndlu-ljo^, &c., HymnisquVSa, or the Song of Hymer, &c. 
Many of these poems can be traced back to the 10th, or even the 9th century. 

9. The Prose or younger Edda was written by the famous Snorre 
SturlesoUy who was born of a noble family in 1 178, at Hvamm on the 
west coast of Iceland, and was murdered in 1241. The Prose Edda was, 
therefore, more than a century later than the Poetic. 

The first edition of the Prose Edda was published in an abridged form at Copen- 
hagen in 1665, by Resenius, in Icelandic, Danish, and Latin. He appended to this 
edition the Volu-spa and Hava-mal, two poems from the Poetic Edda. A complete 
edition of the original text of the Prose Edda was published at Stockholm in 1818, 
by Professor Rask. The Prose Edda is a course of poetical lectures, drawn up for 
those young Icelanders who intended to become Skalds or poets. It consists of two 
parts. The first part, properly called the Edda, explains the mythology of the Poetic 
Edda, and forms a complete northern Pantheon in the form of fables. The second 
part is the Skalda or Poetics, which is the art of poetry adopted by the Skalds. It 
contains a dictionary of poetic synonymes, and the whole art of versification, allitera- 
tion, species of verse, &c. In explaining the mythology, and illustrating the different 
species of versification, Snorre extracted the most interesting parts of the Poetic 
Edda, and thus contrived in the form of dialogues to give the substance of it in a more 
intelligible form. 

10. Nja'la, or Life of the celebrated Icelander, Njall porgeirsson, and his sons. It 
is beautiful in style, and correct in its statements. The Icelandic text was published 
at Copenhagen, 1772, in 4to. and a Latin version in 1809. 

11. Snorre may be justly called the Herodotus of the north, if we 
only consider his great historical work, Heimskringla^f or Annals of the 
Norwegian kings from Odin.iJ: 

* Volu-spa the oracle or prophecy of vala, gen. volu. 

t Heims-kringla orbis terrarum ; heimr mundus, kringla orbis. 

X In this account of the Edda and other Icelandic works, much use has been made of 
Wheaton's Hist, of Northmen, where more satisfactory information will be found. In Mallet's 
Northern Antiquities there is an English translation of the Prose Edda, and many useful 
notes, with the Icelandic text, and an English translation of five pieces of Runic poetry, 
amongst which is Ragnar Lodbrok. 



CXlviii SCANDINAVIAN — SAGAS. 

It was published by Peringskjold, with a Latin and Swedish translation, in 2 vols. 
fol. Stockholm, 1697, and with a Latin and Danish translation by Schlming and 
Thorlacius, in 3 vols. fol. Copenhagen, 1777 — 1783, and continued by the younger 
Thorlacius and Werlavff, in 3 vols. 1813—1826.* 

12. KoNUNGSSKUGGSJA'jf or Royal Mirror. This is supposed to be the work of 
Sverre, king of Norway. It is in the form of dialogue, and gives a view of human 
life, with practical rules for different stations. It was published in Icelandic, Danish, 
and Latin, by Halfdan Einarsen, in 4to. 1768, Sorb. 

13. The Landna'mabok is an account of the most remarkable events connected 
with the first settlement of Iceland, its revolutions, and the introduction of Chris- 
tianity. This history commences in the 9th, and extends to the 12th century. It 
was begun by Are Frodi, and continued by other hands. Are Frodi was born in 
Iceland in 1067; he was the friend and fellow-student of Saemund. His work is 
remarkable as being the earliest historical composition written in the Old Danish or 
northern tongue, which still remains the living language of Iceland. Only a few 
fragments of his works are remaining, which have been published under the title of 
ScJied(B% and Landnamahok.% 

14. The Sagas are very numerous. These were popular narratives, 
recording the lives of kings, chieftains, and noble families. To aid the 
memory of the Saga-man or Story-teller, he contrived to introduce the 
most striking metrical passages fi*om the poems of the Skalds. 

15. Under the well-directed patronage of The Royal Society of Northern 
Antiquaries at Copenhagen, the following works have appeared. jj 

FoRNMANNA SoguT, vol. i ^xi. ; Oldnordiske Sagaer, vol. i xi. ; Scripta His- 

torica Islandorum, vol. i vii. containing — of the historical Sagas, recording events 

out of Iceland — the history of the Norwegian kings from Olaf Tri/ggvason to 
Magnus LagabcBtir, and of the Danish kings (Knytlingd) from Harald Blue-tooth to 
Canute VI., or the period between the middle of the 10th century, and the year 1274; 
in Icelandic, Danish, and Latin. 

16. I'slendInga Sogue, vol. i. ii. containing — of the historical Sagas, recording 
events in Iceland itself— Are Frodi's SchedcB, Landnamabok,^ and Hei^arviga-, Ljos- 
vetmnga, Svarfdcela-, Vallnaljots-, Vemundar ok Viga-Skutu, and Viga- Glums Sagas, 
in Icelandic. 

17. The following works are edited by the learned Secretary of the Society, 
Professor Rafn : — Fcereymga Saga, or the history of the inhabitants of the Farroes ; 
in Icelandic, the Farroe dialect, and Danish, and with a map of the islands. 

18. Fornaldar Sbgur Nor^rlanda, vol. i — ^iii. ; Nordiske Fortids Sagaer, vol. 
i. — ill., being a complete edition of the mytho-historical Sagas, recording events in 

* Rask's A.-S. Gr. by Thorpe, pref. p. iv. note 1. 

f Rask's A.-S. Gr. by Thorpe, pref. p. iv. note 2. Kougr a king; skuggsia a mirror, 
speculum. 

X Are Frodi's Schedse were published by C. Wormius, Oxford, 1716 ; by A. Bussaeus, 
Copenhagen, 1 733 ; but most correctly by the Royal Society of Northern Antiquaries at 
Copenhagen in Islendinga Sogur, vol. i. 

§ Wheaton's Northmen, p. 59, 99. Miiller, Saga bibliothek, i. p. 34. SchedcB Ara Prestz 
Froda urn I'sland, was published in 4to. pp. 26, Skalholt, 1688; Sagan Landndma, in Ato. 
pp. 182, Skalholt, 1688, Again with a Latin version, index, &c. under the title Islands Land- 
ndmabok, 4to. pp. 510, Copenhagen, 1774; and in Islendinga Sogur, vol. i. See § 16. 

II See Annual Report for 1834. 

^ See § 13 for the particulars of this work. 



i 



SCANDINAVIAN — OLD DANISH. cxlix 

the north, assignable to the period anterior to the colonization of Iceland, or the era 
of authentic history ; in Icelandic and Danish. ' 

19. Kra'kuma'l, sive Epicediiim Ragnaris Lodbroci,* or Ode on the heroic deeds 
and death of the Danish king, Ragnar Lodbrok, in England ; in Icelandic, Danish, 
Latin, and French. This Krdkumal is by some called Lo'^hrokarkvi^u, or the Death- 
song of Ragnar Lodbrok, who is said to have reigned in Denmark and Sweden in the 
latter part of the 8th century. f Ragnar invaded Northumbria, and was opposed by 
Ella, king of Deira. This fact ascertains the date of the event, as Ella usurped the 
Northumbrian crown in 862, and perished in 867. Ragnar was taken prisoner, and 
Ella ordered him to be cast into a dungeon, where he might perish by venomous 
snakes. J This song is sometimes quoted as the composition of Ragnar. § It is 
probable that the first twenty-three verses constituted the war-song of Ragnar and 
his followers. The remaining six strophes may have been composed after the king's 
death by his queen Aslaga, or Kraka, or by some of the contemporary or later 
skalds. II This song celebrates the fifty-one depredations of Ragnar in various coun^ 
tries. The death of Ragnar is not only important in an historical point of view, 
causing his sons Halfden, Ingwar, and Ubbo to undertake an invasion which destroyed 
the Octarchy of England, and, for a time, dethroned Alfred ; but if the song were 
composed by him or in his time, it will serve as a very early specimen of the Scan- 
dinavian language.^ 

20. From the Old Danish (Danska tunga) or Scandinavian {Norrcena), 
spring those languages and dialects which are spoken from the coasts of 
Greenland to those of Finland, from the Frozen Ocean to the Eider.** 
This Old Danish was, in its purest state, carried into Iceland by the first 
Norwegian refugees in the 9th century. Hence the Icelandic is the same 
language as the Old Danish, and the Icelanders, from their insular and 
high northern locality, have retained the Old Danish in such purity and 
with such slight variations, that it may still be considered the living 
language of Iceland. There is so little difference between the present 
writing and the most ancient records, that modern Icelandic scholars can 
read the oldest documents with the greatest facility. 

* It was first printed in ^-to. at Copenhagen, 1636, in the work of Olaus Wormius, inhis Runir 
seu Danica Uteratura antiquissima, vulgo Gothica dicta. It was afterwards printed six times 
more by difierent persons in various forms before it appeared in the original, with an English 
translation, entitled "Five pieces of Runic Poetry translated from the Icela^idic language" London, 
8vo. ^763. These pieces were translated by Dr. Thomas Percy, bishop of Dromore, and 
inserted at the end of the 2nd vol. of his translation of Mallet's Northern Antiquities. The 
fifteenth time of its appearance was in 12mo. with the title oi Lodhrokar-Quida; or, the Death- 
song of Lodhroc, with a free English translation, an Islando- Latino glossary, and explanatory notes, 
by James Johnstone, printed \_at Copenhagen by Aug. Ferd. Stee7i] 1782. The twenty-seventh 
form in which this celebrated song has appeared is the most splendid and complete. This is 
by far the best edition; followed by a Latin and French translation, and a complete critical 
apparatus, with a minute account of every edition, and a facsimile of the first page of a manu- 
script found in the Royal Museum, Copenhagen, 1821. The title of this work is "Krdkumal, 
sive Epicedium Regnaris Lodbroci Regis Dania." — Vide Fornaldar Sogur NortSrlandi, i. p. 305 ; 
Nordiske Fortids Sagaer, i. p. 282. 

t Wheaton's Hist, of Northmen, p. 150. 

X Turner's Hist, of A.-S. bk. iv. ch. iii. Langb. 277. 

§ Asby, Wormius, Bartholin, Stephanius, &c. ; Turner, bk. iv. ch. iii. note 37. 

II Wheaton's Hist of Northmen, p. 153. 

^ See the specimen, § 25. 

** Rask's Gr. of the Anglo-Saxon tongue, translated into English by Thorpe, p. 42. 



Cl SCANDINAVIAN — DANISH LONG BEFORE A.D. 645. 

Specimens of Old Danish and its dialects, from the earliest age to 
the present time. 

21. A specimen of Old Danish composed by Star had the Old, whose 
verses are supposed to be the most ancient of all the specimens of the 
Danska Tunga that are still extant, but the precise age of which is not 
ascertained,* though it was long before a.d. 645. 

OLD DANISH. MODERN DANISH. 

pann hefi ek manna Ham bar jeg blandt Msend 

mennskra fundit af Menneske-Herkomst, 

bring heyjanda blandt Stridsmaend fundet 

hrammastan at afli. staerkest af Kraefter. 

LITERAL ENGLISH. 

Him bave I among men among warriors, found 

of tbe buman race, f tbe strongest of body. 

22. A specimen of Old Danish, composed at so remote a period in 
heathen times, that it is impossible now to ascertain its age. It is from 
the Poetic Edda. 

The first verse of the Volu-spd.X 

OLD DANISH. MODERN DANISH. 

HljoJ's bi)? ek allar Lytter til min Tale, 

belgar kindir, alle bellige Vaesener, 

meiri ok minni storre og mindre 

mogu Heim|jallar j af Heimdals Slagt ; 

vUdo'at ek Valfojjur jeg vil fortaslle 

vel framteljak, Valfaders Bedrifter 

fornspjoll fira, Maends gamle Sagn, 

l^au ek fremst of-nam. de forste jeg Isrte. 

Finn Magnusen, p. 31, 

LATIN. 

Silentium rogo omnia Velim coelestis patris 

Sacra entia; Facinora enarrare, 

Majores et minores Antiquos bominum sermones, 

Posteros Heimdalli. Quos primos recorder. 

23. A specimen of Old Danish, composed probably during the former 
part of the 7th century, being the beginning of the Bjarka-mdl hinfornu, 
so called after Bodvar Bjarke, one of king Rolf Krake's warriors, a song 
sung before a battle. § 

* Halfdani Einari Hist. lit. Islandise, p. 49. This specimen is from the Snorra Edda dsamt 
Skdldu, edited by Rask, p. 3 U, 312. 

f i.e. not of the Aser race. 

X From the Edda ScBmundar hins Fro^a ex recensione E. C. Rask, Holmias, 1818, p. 1. 
See the edition of the same, at the expense of the Arna-Magnaean Commissioners by Prof. 
Finn Magnusen, as also his modern Danish version of it, under the title of Den celdre Edda, 
vol. i. p. 31. 

§ Published by Professor Rafn in the Fornaldar Sdgur Norirlanda, vol. i. p. 110. See his 
modern Danish version in the Nordiske Fortids Sagaer, vol. i. p. 103. This ancient song was 
sung at dawn of the day of the great battle of Stiklestad, a.d. 1030, in which king St. Olaf 
fell ; vide Fornmanna Sbgur, vol. v. p. 59, 60, and the Latin version by S. Egilsson in the 
Scripta historica Islandorum, vol. v. p. 64. 



SCANDINAVIAN— OLD DANISH, A.D. 770. 



cU 



OLD DANISH. 

Dagr er uppkominu, 
dynja hana ija^rar, 
mal er vilmogum 
at vinna erfi<Si ; 
vaki ok x vaki 
vina-hofu^, 
allir hinir aeztu 
Adels ofsinnar. 

Har hinn hartSgreipi, 
Hrolfr skjotandi, 
asttgo^ir menn, 
Jjeir er ekki flyja ! 
vekjat ySr at vini 
ne at vifs runum, 
heldr vek ek ySr at hbrSum 
Hildar leiki. 



MODERN DANISH. 

Solen er oprunden, 
ryste Hanens Fjaedre, 
Tid er nu for Drenge 
til Daad at gange ; 
vaager, stedse vaager, 
Venner kjsere, 
alle I ypperste 
Adils Hofsinder. 

Har hin haardfore, 
Rolf den Skytte, 
setgode Maend, som 
Flugt ei kjende ! 
eder jeg vaekker ei til Viin, 
ikke til Kvinders Tale, 
men jeg eder til Hildes 
haarde Leg nu vaekker. 



Dies exortus est, 
pennae galli strepunt, 
tempus est, ut servi 

opus incipiant ; 
vigilent, semper vigilent 

amicorum capita, 
prasstantissimi quique 

Adilsis comites. 



Har, manu fortis, 
Rolvus jaculator, 
gen ere praestantes viri, 
qui non fugiunt I 
Ad vina vos non excito, 
neque ad puellarum colloquia, 
sed excito vos ad durum 
Bellonae ludum. 



24. A specimen of Old Danish of about the year 770, cut in Runic 
characters in a flat rock at Runamo, in the parish of Hoby in Bleking, 
now a province of Sweden, but formerly of Denmark, as interpreted by 
Professor Finn Magnusen.* 



OLD DANISH. 

Hiiltekinn riki nam, 
Gar>r in hio, 
U'li eit gaf . . . . 
vigi 0']?in runar ! 
Hringr fai 



MODERN ICELANDIC. 

Hildikinn riki nam, 
Gart5r inn hj6, 
O'li eitS gaf .... 
vigi O'Sinn runar ! 
Hringr fai 



* The Danish king Valdemar the First, sent, probably at the suggestion of the historian 
Saxo Grammaticus, some individuals skilled in Runes to Bleking, between the years 1157 
and 1182, with the view of having this inscription deciphered. His emissaries, however, 
failed to accomplish the object of their mission. Subsequently, and especially during the last 
century or two, the attempt from time to time was renewed under the auspices of some of the 
most learned men of the day, but their endeavours led to no more satisfactory results. It was 
reserved for the great Archaeologist and Runologist Finn Magnusen, after a personal inspection 
of the inscription on the spot, to interpret it in its entire state in May 1834, and to determine 
the form of verse (the ancient FornyriaJag^ in which it was written. Professor Magnusen's 
remarks upon this subject are inserted in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Northern 
Antiquaries, Nordisk Tidsskrift for Oldkyndighed, vol. ii. p. 276 — 304 ; and in Historisch-Anti- 
quarische Mittheilungen, herausgegeben von der Koniglichen Gesellschaft fiir Nordische Alter- 
thumskunde, Kopenhagen, 1835, pp. 109 — 117. In p. Ill of the latter work, it is recorded 
that. Professor Finn Magnusen for more than ten months tried in vain to decipher the 
inscription. On the 22nd of May, 1834, by attempting to read from right to left, he 
immediately succeeded in deciphering the first three words, and in less than two hours he 
explained the whole inscription. 



clii 



SCANDINAVIAN — OLD DANISH, A.D. 



863. 



fall a mold! .... 

A'lfar, astago^ 
O'la(fjai); 
O'Jjin ok Frei 
ok A'sakun 
fari (fari) 
iiandum varum, 
unni Haraldi 
aerin sigr ! 

MODERN DANISH. 

Hildekind modtog Riget, 
Gard indhug (Ruiierne), 
Ole aiiagde Ed ... . 
Odin vie Runerne ! 
Gid Ring faae 
Fald paa Muld ! 
Alfer Elskovsguder 
01e(forlade)! 
Odin og Freij 
og Asers Slajgt 
odelaegge (bdelaegge) 
vore Fjender, 
unde Harald 
fuldstaendig Seier ! 



fall'a mold ! 
A'lfar, A'stagoiS 
Ola fjai (hati) 
O'^inn, og Frey 
og A'sakyn 
fari, fari 
Qandum vorum, 
unni Haraldi 
asrinn sigr ! 

ENGLISH. 

Hildekinn received the kingdom, 

Gard hewed out (these characters), 

Ole took the oath .... 

Odin consecrate these Runes ! 

May Ring get 

a fall on the mould ; 

Elves, gods of love, 

Ole hate ! 

Odin and Frey 

and the Aser-race 

destroy (destroy) 

our enemies, 

grant to Harald 

a great victory ! 



25. A specimen of Old Danish from Krakum^l, or the Death-song of 
Ragnar Lodbrok,* probably composed between a.d. 862 and 867. 



OLD DANISH. 

Hjuggu ver metS hjorvi \ 
horX kom hri^ a skjoldu, 
nar fell ni^r til jarSar 
a Nor^imbralandi ; 
varat um eina ottu 
oldum l^orf at fryja 
Hildar leik, Jjar er hvassir 
hjalmstofn bitu skjomar ; 
boSmana sa ek bresta, 
bra I»vi fira lifi. 

KrakumM Str. 14. 

LITEEAL LATIN. 

Percussimus nos cum gladio 

Dura venit procella in scuta, 

cadaver cecidit deorsum ad terram 

in Northumbria terra. 

Non erat, tempore matutino, 

viris opus, ciere. 

Ad Bellonae ludum ibi anhelant, 

galeae fulcrum mordebant fulgores, 

peltas lunatas vidi ego confractas, 

invertit ideo virorum vita. 



MODEEN DANISH. 

Svunge vi med Svaerdet ! 
stormede Regn mod Skjolde, 
Lig i Nordhumberland da 
laae paa Jorden stroede ; 
man ei nodtes den Morgen 
Maend til Strid at egge, 
der hvor skarpe Kaarder 
skare Hjelmens Flade ; 
Kampmaaner saae jeg kloves, 
Kaemperne misted Livet. 

Rafn, p. 13. 

LITEEAL ENGLISH. 

We hewed with swords ! 

Hard came the storm on our shields, 

dead they fell down on the earth, 

in Northumberland. 

None, on that morning, 

needed men to incite. 

For Bellona's sharp sport, 

the glittering sword split the steel-capt skull, 

the moon-round shield saw I broken, 

and thus men's lives were lost. 



• See § 19. 



SCANDINAVIAN — OLD DANISH, FROM A.D. 900 — 1150. 



cliii 



26. A specimen of Old Danish of the 10th century, being the Runic 
inscriptions at Jellinge in Jutland, on the tumulus of king Gorm the Old, 
and his consort Thyre, as interpreted by Professor Finn Magnusen. 



OLD DANISH. 

Gurmr kunugr ger]ji kubl jjusi eft purvi 
kunu sina Danmarkar-but. 

Haraldr kunugr ba}? giorva kubl l^osi eft 
gurm fa>ur sin ok eft piurvi mujjur sina ; 
sa Haraldr ies van Danmork ala ok Nur- 
vieg ok tok kristno. 

MODERN DANISH. 

Kong Gorm gjorde denne Hoi efter sin 
Kone Thyre Danmarks-Bod. 

Kong Harald bad (bod) gjore denne Hoi 
efter Gorm, sin Fader og efter Thyre sin 
Moder; den Harald som vandt al Dan- 
mark og Norge, ogantog Christendommen. 
Antiquariske Annaler, vol. iv. p 1 10 



MODERN ICELANDIC. 

Gormr konungr gertSi kumbl J^essi eftir 
pyri konu sina Danmarkarbot. 

Haraldr konungr ba^ gjorva kumbl Jjessi 
eftir Gorm fe^ur sinn og eftir Pyri, moSur 
sina ; sa Haraldr, er (es) vann Danmork 
alia og Norveg ok tok kristni. 

LITERAL ENGLISH. 

King Gorm raised this barrow after (in 
memory of) his queen Thyre Danmarks- 
bod (the improver of Denmark). 

King Harald bade make this barrow for 
his father Gorm and his mother Thyre, the 
same Harald who conquered all Denmark 
and Norway, and embraced Christianity. 

112. 



27, A specimen of Old Danish or Icelandic of the former part of the 
11th century, from Ottar Svarte's ode on king St. Olaf. 



OLD DANISH OR ICELANDIC. 

Komtu i land ok lendir, 
ladvoriSr ! A^alraSi, 
J'in naut rekka reynir 
riki efldr at sliku ; 
harSr var fundr, sa er faeru* 
fritsland a vit ni^ja 
reS aettstudill aJSan 
Eatmundar |?ar grundu. 

LATIN. 

Terrae custos, valens potentia ! 
Venisti in terram, et Adalradum 
in regnum restituisti ; tua ope 
est usus hac in re virorum amicus. 



MODERN DANISH. 

Landbeskytter ! du atter 
Adelraad til sit Rige 
forte, sligt dig Folkets 
maegtige Fyrste skijlder ; 
haardt var Slaget, da Edmunds 
Arving du indsatte 
i det fredede Rige, 
for behersket af Slsegten. 

Durus erat conflictus, quo 
nepotem Jatmundi pacato 
reddidisti regno ; huic terrae 
avita proles imperaverat antea.* 



28. A specimen of Old Danish 
according to the opinion of Professor 

OLD DANISH OR ICELANDIC. 

MatSr er nefndr Grimr kamban, hann 
bygtsi fyrstr Faereyjar a dogum Haralds 
hins harfagra ; |ja flj^u fyrir bans ofriki 
fjoldi manna, settust sumir i Faereyjum, 
ok byg«u I^ar, en sumir leitu^u til annarra 
eytSilanda. 



or Icelandic, written before 1150, 
Rafn.t 

MODERN FERROE DIALECT. 

Ajn Mavur er nevndur Grujmur Kam- 
ban, han fowr fistur at biggja Forjar, meni 
Haraldur hin hSrfagri var a Dovun ; tl 
flujddi firi Owdomi hansara mengur Ma- 
vur; summir settu se uj Forjun og bigdu 
bar, men summir lajtavu til annur Ojulond. 



* Fornmanna Sogur, vol. iv. p. 50, and vol. xi. p. 185; Oldnordiske Sagaer, vol. iv. p. 47, 
and vol. xi. p. 164; Scripta historica Islandorum, vol. iv. p. 49. 

t See Faereyinga Saga, p. 1. Improperly, by a pleonasm, called Ferroe Islands, — Islands 
being unnecessary, as Ferroe is derived from faei* or faar, c. a sheep, ovis ; o, c. an island, 
insula, pi. ber islands, insulae; F^eroerne or Faar-oer ovium insulce, in Danish commonly 
called the Faerber. 



^'! 



cliv SCANDINAVIAN— OLD DANISH, FROM A.D. 1200 — 1290. 

LITERAL ENGLISH. MODERN DANISH. 

A man named Grim Kamban cultivated Grim Kamban bed en Mand ; ban be- 
first tbe Fajr islands in tbe time of Harald byggede forst Faerberne i Harald Haarfa- 
tbe fair-haired; then {when) many fled gersDage. Der vare den Gang mange, som 
from his tyranny, some settled on the Faer flyede for Kongens Her-skesyge, af hvilke 
islands, and built houses, and some sought nogle nedsatte sig paa Faerberne, og toge 
for. other uncultivated lands. sig der Bopagl, men nogle sbgte til andre 

ode Lande. 

29. A specimen of Icelandic, written about a.d. 1200, from Snorre's 
Edda. 

ICELANDIC, 

Almattigr gu« skapaSi i upphafi himin ok jbrd ok alia jja luti er j^eim fylgja, ok 
si^arst menn tva, er aettir erufra komnar, Adam ok Evo, okjQblga^ist j^eirra kynslo?, 
ok dreifSist um heim allan. En er fram liSu stundir, )?a ujafna^ist mannfolkiS, voru 
sumir gotSir ok rett-truatSir, en miklu fleiri snerust \>a. eptir girndum heimsins, ok 
uraektu guSs botSortS — Snorra-Edda, Rask, Stockholm, 1818, p. 1. 

MODERN DANISH. 

Den almaegtige Gud skabte i Begyndelsen Himlen og Jorden og alle de Ting som 
dertil hbre, og tilsidst to Mennesker, fra hvem Slsgter nedstamme, Adam og Eva, og 
deres Stamme formerede sig, og udbredtes over hele Verden. Men da Tiderne lede 
frem, blev Menneskeslsgten ulig, nogle vare gode og rettroende, men langt flere 
vendte sig efter Verdens Begjerligheder, og forsbmte Guds Bud. 

LITERAL ENGLISH. 

The Almighty God created, in the beginning, heaven and earth, and all the things 
which thereto belong, and at last, men from whom families sprung forth, Adam and 
Eve, and their race increased themselves and spread over all the world. But as time 
passed (led) on, ^the race of men became different (unlike), some were good and right 
believing, but far more turned themselves to (after) the desires (lusts) of the world, 
and neglected God's commandment. 

30. A specimen of Old Danish or Icelandic, as written towards the 
close of the 13th century, but dating from an earlier period, the year 
AD. 1117, being an extract from the ancient Icelandic Law-book, entitled 
the Gragas (7%e Gray-goose)* 

OLD DANISH OR ICELANDIC. LATIN. 

Ef utlendir menn verjja vegnir a landi Si exteri, Dani, Sveii, vel Norvegi e 

her, danskir ejjr sbnskir ej^r norrbnir, or tribus illorum regum imperils, quae lingva 

|jeirra konga veldi III. er var tiinga er, nostra utuntur, oriundi his in terris inter- 

f>ar eigo fraendr Jjeirra J^aer sakir, ef ])eit fecti fuerint, csesi propinqui si adfuerint 

eru ut her, en af bllum tungum bl^rum enn actionem csedis suscipere liceat. Sedalia 

af danskri tiingo, ba a engi maj^r her vig- quam Danica lingva utentium nemo pro- 

sbk at sbkja af fraendsemis sbkum, nema pinquitatisnomine, caediscausamhicagendi 

fajjir e]}x sonr ejjr broHr, oc |?vi at eino juregaudeat, nisipater,filiusvelfrater,iique 

^eir, ef >eir hbf|jo her air vij?kennzt. tantummodo, si hie antea noti fuerint. 

* See Hin forna loghok Fshndinga sem nefnist Grdgds. Codex juris Islandorum antiquis- 
sinius qui nominatur Gragas, Hafniae, 1829, at the expense of the Arna-Magnaean Commis- 
sioners, Part II. p. 71, 72. 



SCANDINAVIAN — OLD DANISH, FROM A. D. 1397 — 1589. 



clv 



31. Old Danish before the Calmar Union in a.d. 1397. 



OLD DANISH. 

Sattaer war raet thaenne .... tvem win- 
trum oc faem ukum, sidaen Ro war wnnin 
til Cristendoms af Waldemar kunungi, 
oc laght til Sjalanzs biscopsd6m(s) af Wal- 
demare kunungi oc Alexandaer paue. 



ICELANDIC. 

Settr var rettr Jjessi tveim vetrum oc 
fimm vikum, si^an Ro var unnin til Cris- 
tindoms af Valdimar koniingi, oc log^ til 
Sjalanz biskupsdoms af Valdimari konfingi 
oc Alexandri paua. 



RasKs Anglo-Saxon Gr. Pref. p. xxu. 

ENGLISH. 

Set was this law, two winters and five weeks ; since peace was bestowed on Chris- 
tianity by Waldemar the king, and a law made for Sjalans bishoprick by Waldemar 
the king, and Alexander the pope. 



32. Banish in 1433. 

DANISH. 

Wii Erick meth guths nathe Danmarks, 
Suerghes, Norghes-koning gore witerlikt 
alle the, thette brefF see eller hore, at wi 
af vor serdelis Nadhe for Hr Erick Niels- 
sons wor elschelike tro mans oc radhs bon 
sculd sva oc for troscap oc willich tieniste 
unne oc giue hanum . . . friihet oc frelsse 
med suadane wapen . . . som her vnder 
nedhen vtmaledh sta . . . 

Datum 1433. 



ENGLISH. 

We Erick, by God's grace, king of Den- 
mark, Sweden, Norway, make known to 
all, who see or hear this letter, that we by 
our peculiar grace for Mr. Erick Nielsons, 
our beloved faithful man and counsellor, 
praying, and for fidelity and willing ser- 
vices, have conferred and given him . . . 
liberty and franchisement with such coat of 
arms as here under beneath painted stand. 
Given 1433. 



RasKs Anglo-Saxon Gr. Pref. p. xxi. 

33. Old Danish, from a MS. of Homilies, or meditations, belonging to 
the Royal Swedish Historiographer of Hallenberg. It is without date, 
but appears to be about a.d. 1450. 



DANISH. 

Ther aeffther drogh Nichodemus then 
annen spiger pa vinstrae handh, oc faek han 
sammeledes lohannes. Sidhen foor Ni- 
chodemus nether, oc foor op at ien liden 
stige, och togh spigene af f odaernae, maedaen 
iosep hiolt pa ligommaet. 



ENGLISH. 

Hereafter drew Nichodemus the other 
nail from the left hand, and gave it in the 
same manner to John. Afterwards Nicho- 
demus went nearer, and went upon the 
small steps, and drew the nails from the 
feet, while Joseph held the corpse. 



Mask's Anglo-Saxon Gr. Pref. p. xviii. 

34. A few examples of Danish are given from the Scriptures, to faci- 
litate the comparison, and thus shew the connexion of this tongue with 
those of Teutonic origin. The first example is from the Danish Epistles 
and Gospels, Leipsic, 15 IS, fol. 

Mk. iv. 3, 6 — .En mand gick wd ath saa sin Ssd. Som ha saade da fait somt afF 
korned boss vegn. Oc det blefl^ traad bort oc sompt der afF ode fuglene i vaered. 

35. Bible, Copenhagen, 1589, fol. 

Mk. iv. 3, 4 — Horer til! See, der gick en Saemand ud ad saa. Oc det skede, 
i det hand saade, at noget fait boss Veyen : Da komme Fulene under Himmelen oc 
ode det. 



clvi 



SCANDINAVIAN — OLD DANISH, FROM A. D. 1647 — 1775. 



36. Bible, 1647, 8vo. 

Mk. iv. 3, 4 — Horer til; See, der gik en Saedemand ud at saae. Og det skede 
i det hand saaede, at noget faldt hos Vejen ; og der komme Himmelens Fugle og 
aaede det op. 

37. New Testament, Copenhagen, 1717, 8vo. 

Mk. iv. 3, 4 — Horer (til) : see, en Sasdemand gik ut at saae. Og det skede, i det 
hand saade, at noget faldt hos Veyen, og Himmelens Fugle kom og aad det op. 

38. New Testament, London, 1827, 8vo. 

Mk. iv. 3, 4 — Horer til ; see, en Saedemand gik ud at saae. Og det skede, i det 
han saaede, at noget faldt ved Veien, og Himmelens Fugle kom, og aad det op. 

39. As a specimen of the present Danish, a better cannot be selected 
than the following National Song, which is to the Danes what '* God save 
the King" is to the English. It was written by Johannes Evald, a poet 
who flourished in the latter part of the last century. (Born 1743, died 

1781).* 

King Christian stood by the lofty mast 
In mist and smoke. 

His sword was hammering so fast, 

Through Gothic helm and brain it passed. 

Then sank each hostile hulk and mast 
In mist and smoke. 

Fly, shouted they, fly, he who can ! 

Who braves of Denmark's Christian 
The stroke ? 



Kong Christian stod ved hoien Mast 

I Rog og Damp. 
Hans Vaerge hamrede saa fast, 
At Gothens Hielm og Hierne brast. 
Da sank hver fiendtligt Speil og Mast 

I Rog og Damp. 
Flye, skreg de, flye, hvad flygte kan ! 
Hvo staaer for Danmarks Christian 

IKamp? 

Niels Juel gav Agt paa Stormens Brag : 

Nu er det Tid ! 
Han heisede det rode Flag, 
Og slog paa Fienden Slag i Slag. 
Da skreg de hoit blant Stormens Brag : 

Nu er det Tid ! 
Flye, skreg de, hver, som veed et Skiul ! 
Hvo kan bestaae for Danmarks Juel 

Istrid? 

O Nordhav, Glimt, af Vessel brod 

Din morke Skye : 
Da tyede Kasmper til dit Skiod ; 
Thi med ham lynte Skraek og Dod ; 
Fra Vallen hortes Vraal, som brod 

Din Skye : 
Fra Danraark lyner Tordenskiold ; 
Hver give sig i Himlens Void, 

Og flye ! 



Niels Juel gave heed to the tempest's roar ; 

Now is the hour ! 
He hoisted his blood-red flag once more. 
And smote the foe of the Dane full sore.f 
And shouted loud through the tempest's 
roar: 

Now is the hour ! 
Fly, shouted they, for shelter fly ! 
Of Denmark's Juel who can defy 

The power ? 

North Sea ! a glimpse of Wessel rent 

Thy murky sky ! 
Then champions to thine arms were sent ; 
Terror and death glared where he went; 
From the waves was heard a wail, that rent 

Thy murky sky ! 
From Denmark thunders Tordenskiol' ; 
Let each to heaven commend his soul. 

And fly ! 



♦ For this piece and the translation, I am indebted to my friend, H. W. Longfellow, Esq. 
M.A. Professor of Belles Lettres in Harvard University, Cambridge, America, Nov. 1835. 
f " Ahd smote upon the foe full sore." 



SCANDINAVIAN — ICELANDIC AND SWEDISH. clvii 

Du Danskes Vei til Roes og Magt, Path of the Dane to fame and might, 

Sortladne Hav ! Dark-rolling wave ! 

Modtag din Ven, som uforsagt Receive thy friend, who scorning flight 

Tor mode Faren med Foragt, Goes to meet danger with despite, 

Saa stolt, som du, mod Stormens Magt, Proudly as thou meetest the tempest's 

might, 
Sortladne Hav ! Dark-rolling wave ! 

Og rask igiennem Larm og Spil, And amid pleasures and alarms 

Og Kamp og Seier foer mig til And war and victory, be thine arms 
Min Grav ! My grave ! 

40. The Icelandic^ here called NorrcenL For facility of comparison, 
a few extracts are given from the Icelandic Scriptures. Nach : Thetta 
er hid nye Testament Jesu Christi, &c. utlogd a Norraeni, &c. or The 
New Testament in the Norrcenn, northern, Old Danish, or Icelandic 
tongue, 8vo. 1539. 

Mk. iv. 3, 4. — Og i sine predikan, tha sagdi han til thra. Heyre thier, siaet I ein 
sadsaedare gieck vt at saa. Thad vard tha han sadi, at sumt fiell vtan hia veginum, og 
tha komu fuglar loptzins og atu thad vpp. 

41. Biblia thad er, oil Heilog Rituing vtlogd a Norraenu, med for- 
malum Mart. Lutheri, Prentad a Holum, af lone lonas Syne, fol. 1 584, 
or The Bible, in Norse or Icelandic, after the version of Luther, Bible, 
Stockholm, 1584, fol. 

Mk. iv. 3, 4. — Og i sine Predikan, tha sagde han til thra, Heyre thier. Sia : Eirn 
saadsaedare gieck ut at sa. Og thad vard tha han sade, at sumt fiell utan hia veigenum, 
og thar komu fuglar Lopisins og aatu thad vpp. 

42. Stiernhelm's Gospels of Ulphilas, in Moes., IceL, Swed., Ger., and 
Latin, 4to. Stockholm, 1671.* 

Mk. iv. 3, 4 Heyred til. Sia, eirn Sadmadur gieck ut ad saa. Og thad vard i 

thui han saade, ad sumt fiell utann hia Veigenum ; og tha komu Fuglar under Him- 
nenum, og aatu thad upp. 

43. Old Swedish can scarcely be distinguished from Danish ; and Nor- 
wegian has been, from the earliest times on record, and is now, identical 
with Danish ; but as more modern Swedish differs a little from the Danish, 
a few specimens may be desirable. 

44. A specimen of Swedish from a document issued by king Magnus 
Sm6k in 1354. 

SWEDISH. ENGLISH. 

Wi magnus, med guds nadh Sverikis We Magnus, by the grace of God, king 

konung, norghis oc skane, wiliom at thet of Sweden, Norway, and Scania, will that 

seal allom mannom witerlikt wara, at wi it shall be known to all men that we by 

aff wara serdelis nadh hafwm vnt bergx- our peculiar grace have conceded to Bergx- 

mannomen a noreberge thaennae raet oc man (miner) of Noreberge the right and 

stadhga, som haer aepter fblger : fFbrst power as hereafter follows : first have we 

hafwm wi stat oc skipat, at tolff skulu constituted and ordained, that twelve shall 

wara the som fore bergheno sculu standa be the sum, &c. 
oc thera raeaet waeria oc fulfolghia i allom 
lutom, &c. 

* See Gothic, § 11, 



clviii SCANDINAVIAN — SWEDISH, FROM A.D. 1541 — 1834. 

45. Swedish Bible, Upsal, 1541, fol. 

Mk. iv. 3, 4 — Horer til. Sij, en Sadhesman gick vth til at saa. Och hende sigh 
widh han sadde, foil somt widh waghen, och foghlanar vnder himmelen komo, och ato 
thet vp. 

46. The Swedish, from the Gospels of Ulphilas, Stockholm* 167*1. 
Mk. iv. 3, 4 Horer til; sy en Sadesman gik uth, til at saa. Och hende sigh wid 

han sadde, foil somt wid Wagen, og Foglarna under Himmelen komo, och ato thet up. 

47. Bible, 8vo. London, 1828. 

Mk. iv. 3, 4 Horer til : Si, en Sadesman gick ut, til at sa. Och hande sig, wid han 

sadde, foil somt wid wagen, och foglarne under himmelen kommo, och ato thet up. 

48. One of the most eminent of modern Swedish poets is Bishop Tegner . 
He took the story of Frithiof from one of the old Sagas, and under the title 
of Frithiof 's Saga, he has written in flowing verse a most interesting story 
of royal affection. The following extract is from the Exile of Frithiof , in 
the original Swedish, in the Norwegian or Danish translation, and with 
a poetical version of the Rev. W. Strong. 

SWEDISH. DANISH. ENGLISH. 

Nu sol gar opp Nu Sol gaaer op The orb of day, 

bak fallens topp. Bag Fjeldets Top ; Now tints the spray ; 

och vinden Ijuder Landvinden lyder. From piping heights, 

fran land och bjuder Hver Vove byder The breeze invites 

hvar vag till dans Den op til Dands Each beam and wave, 

i morgonglans. I Morgenglands. To dance and lave. 

Pa bbljans toppar Paa Bolgetoppe O'er the gay group, 

Ellida hoppar Assted de hoppe Ellida's poop 

i frojd astad, Saa fro og glad. Bounds light along ; 

men Frithiof qvad. Men Frithjof qvad. To Frithiof s wilder song, 
Tegrwr, cant. xiv. p. 113. Foss, p. 135. Strong, p. 187. 

49. A fine passage from The Reconciliation, cannot be omitted : it is 
a description of Balder the good. 

SWEDISH. 

Frid var bans harski, harlek var bans blanka svard, 

och oskuld satt som dufva pa bans silfverhjelm. 

From lefde ban och larde, dog ban och forlat, 

och under fjerran palmer star bans graf i Ijus. 

Hans I'ara, sags det, vandrar ifran dal till dal, 

forsmalter harda bjertan, lagger baTnd i band, 

och bygg^r fridens rike pa forsonad jord Tegner, p. 164. 

DANISH. 

Fred var bans Haerraab, Kjerligbed bans blanke Svserd, 

Og Uskyld sad som Due paa bans Solverhjelm. 

Fromt leved han og laerte, dode og tilgav, 

Og under fjerne Palmer staaer bans Grav i Lys. 

Hans Laere, siges der, gaaer vidt fra Dal til Dal, 

Samsmelter haarde Hjerter, laegger Haand i Haand, 

Og bygger Fredens Rige paa forsonet Jord — Foss, p. 194. 

• See § 42, and Gothic. § 11. 



SCANDINAVIAN — DALECARLIAN DIALECT. clix 



His war-cry, peace, ^ood-will : love was his two-edged sword ; 

Crest of his silver helm, sat dove-like innocence ; 

Grace mark'd his life, his word : his death-sigh breath'd * Forgive. * 

In light 'neath distant palms, far pilgrims seek his tomb. 

'Tis said his tidings walk, peace-shod from dale to dale. 

Melting the flinty heart, cementing man to man, 

Building of living stones, a temple to this God Strong, p. 303. 

Dialect of Dalecarlia* 

50. The principal dialect f of Sweden is the Dalecarlian. The Dalcarls 
are spoken of as the Swedish Highlanders. Inhabiting that secluded region 
which stretches westward from the Silian Lake to the Alps of Norway, they 
have preserved comparatively unchanged the manners, customs, and lan- 
guage of their Gothic forefathers. 

"Here," says Serenius,^ "are the only remains in Sweden of the ancient Gothic 
stock, whereof the aspiration of the letters I and w bears witness upon their tongues, 
an infallible characteristic of the Moeso-Gothic, Anglo-Saxon, and Icelandic." In 
another place, speaking of the guttural or aspirated /, he says : " Germans and Danes 
cannot pronounce it, no more than the aspirated w ; for which reason this was a fatal 
letter three hundred years ago in these nations, when Engelbrect, a born Dalcarl, set 
it up for a shibboleth, and whoever could not say Hivid hest i Korngulff, was taken 
for a foreigner, because he could not aspirate the w, nor utter the guttural /."§ It is 
even asserted, that with their ancient customs and language the Dalcarls have preserved 
the use of the old Runic alphabet, although from feelings of religious superstition it 
was prohibited by Olaf Shatkonung at the beginning of the 11th century, and dis- 
continued in all other parts of Sweden. This is mentioned on the authority of 
Nasman, who wrote in the first half of the last century. || 

51. The Dalecarlian dialect is spoken in its greatest purity in Elfdalen, 
Mora, and Orsa, parishes of East Dalecarlia. 

In West Dalecarlia it is mingled with the dialects of the Norwegian mountains, and 
bears the name of Mahlungs Skinnarmal. The peculiarities of this jargon are these : 
— 1. Prefixing the letter v to all monosyllables which begin with a vowel, as vom for 
om if; vord for ord a word, &c. 2. The transposition of syllables, as jasel for selja 
to sell; lata for tala to speak, &c. Thus they say — 

Kan du lata tse korba, so kimi du lavi ? 

Kan du tala tae baka, so miki du vila ? 

Canst thou speak backwards, as much as thou wilt ? 

* Professor Longfellow, of Harvard University, Cambridge, America, who has recently 
returned from Sweden, was so obliging as to draw up this notice of the Dalecarlian dialect, 
October, 1835. 

t Balbi and Make Brun make two great divisions in the Swedish. I. Swedish proper, spoken 
in the north and east; and II. Modern Gothic, used in Gothland to the south. — I. Swedish 
PROPER, subdivided into 1. The dialect of Upland, 2. Noriand, 3. Eastern Dalecarlian, and 
4. the dialect of Finland. II. Modern Gothic, divided into 1. West Gothic, 2. East Gothic, 
3. Werneland, 4. Smoland, and 5. Runae in Livonia.— ^a/Ji's Atlas, Table xiii. ; Malte Brun, 
bk. xcvi. vol. vi. p. 109. 

J J. Serenius' English and Swedish Dictionary, 4to. Nykbping, 1757, Pref. p. iii. 

§ Ibid. p. ii. 

II Nasman (R. E.) Historiola Linguae Dalekarlicae, 4to, Upsaliae, 1733, p. 30. 



Clx SCANDINAVIAN — DALECARLIAN DIALECT. 

52. The inhabitants of the town of Sarna, on the borders of the Nor- 
wegian Alps in East Dalecarlia, speak a mixed dialect of Dalecarlian and 
Norwegian ; and it is said, that they understood the language spoken by 
certain Dutchmen, who were in the habit of visiting those mountains for 
the purpose of taking falcons, then used in hunting.* We are also told 
of a Dalecarlian boy who was taken by a Swedish ambassador to England, 
and who easily understood the language of the peasants of the northern 
counties, t 

53. The three branches of the Dalecarlian dialect, as spoken in Elf- 
dalen, Mora, and Orsa, differ from each other not only in the change of 
letters and the inflexion of words, but also in accent and pronunciation. 
Between those of Elfdalen and Mora the difference is not, however, very 
great. That of Orsa stands more apart, as may be seen by the following 
versions of the Lord's Prayer. 

54. Dialect of Elfdalen. 

Fad uoer, so ir i himbluma. 

Hielit ir daett nam. Tilkum dagtt riki. 

Ski dsenn uilja, so i himblum sa a jordi. 

Uott dagli brod gi^f oss i dag. 

Og firilat oss uorasr skulldaer. 

Soss uir firilatum diom so i oss nod skilldug. 

Laed int uoss i nan jaelok fraestilsae 

Auta los oss fr^ uondu. Amen. 

55. Dialect of Mora. 

Fad uaer so ir i himmelim. 

Haellit ae daett nam. Tilkum dett rikias. 

Ske daenn uilli so i himmelim so a jordi. 

Uott dagli brod giaef huass i dag. 

Firilat huass huaraer skuUdur. 

Sos huir firilatum diom sa ae hu^ss n^ skilld^. 

Led int huass i nan uondan fraestilsae. 

Int' kt fraels huass fr^ illu. Amen. 

56. Dialect of Orsa. 

Falla orn, sa ir i himblim, 

Haelgat useri daett nam. Tilkaemi daett rikia. 

Ski dseina uilju, sk i himblum sa k jordi. 

Ort dagliga brod gia hu^ss i dag. 

A farlat huass oraer skulldaer, 

Skai sa ui fserlatum dsem huass skilldugser irk. 

A inled huoss int i fraestilse. 

Masld fraels huass iik uslndu. Amen, 

Norwegian. 

51. For several centuries, and especially since the Danish became 
a fixed and regular tongue, Norwegian has been identical with Danish. 

• Nasman, p. 12. • f Ibid. p. 17. 



SCANDINAVIAN — FERROE DIALECT. 



clxi 



This common dialect has perhaps been as much settled and polished by 
Norwegians as by natives of Denmark.* As there is this identity in the 
Danish and Norwegian, the copious examples of the Danska tunga pre- 
viously given, will serve also for the Norwegian, and will render further 
remarks unnecessary. 

Ferroe Dialect. 

58. A specimen of early Ferroe taken from Professor Rafn's Faareyinga 
Saga, Pref. p. iv. Thrand was one of the first inhabitants of Ferroe. 
Many religious verses are ascribed to him, and are still preserved by oral 
tradition among the inhabitants of the Ferroes. The following Creed, 
written down by a native Ferroe clergyman, Pastor Schrdter, now 
Emeritus, who translated the Gospel of St. Matthew,t will serve as an 
example of this dialect. 



FERROE DIALECT. 

Gjivnir eru Ajnglar gowir [af Gudi] 

Aj gengji e ajna udi, 

Ferun mujnun filgja 

Fim Guds Ajnglar; 

Bije e firi mar Bon, 

Bera tajr ta [Bon] firi Kriste. 

Singje e Salmana sjej, 

Sar Gud til Saluna mujna ! 

MODERN FERROE DIALECT. 

Gengji e aj ajna ut, 
fujra mar filgja, 
fim Guds Ajnglar, 
beri e Bon firi mar, 
Bon firi Krist, 
singji e Sllma sjej, 
sjaji Gud til Luta mujn ! 



LITERAL ENGLISH. 

Go I not alone out, 
Four me follow, 
Five God's angels, 
I pray a^ prayer for me, 
A prayer for Christ. 
I sing seven Psalms, 
God will see for my lot ! 



LITERAL ENGLISH. 

Good angels are given by God, 
I go not alone, 
My steps follow 
Five angels of God ; 
Pray I for me a prayer, 
They bear it to Christ. 
Sing I seven Psalms, 
Sees God for my soul ! 

OLD ICELANDIC. 

Gangat ek einn ut, 
fjorir mer fylgja, 
fimm gutSs einglar ; 
ber ek basn fyrir mer, 
basn fyrir Kristi, 
syng ek salma sjo, 
sjai gu<S hluta minn ! 

Written about A.B. 1150. 

MODERN DANISH. 

Ene jeg ei gaaer ud, 

fire mig folge, 

fem Guds Engle, 

Bon for mig jeg frembaerer 

Bon for Cliristus. 

syv Salmer jeg synger, 

Sorge Gud for mit Bedste ! 



f^^^- 



* See § 42, and Rask's A.-S. Gr. by Mr. Thorpe, p. xvi. 

t Evangelium St. Mattbaeussa S Faeroisk o Dansk, Randers, 1823—8. 



clxii 



XII.— THE AFFINITY OF THE GERMANIC LANGUAGES. 

1. The Germanic languages, comprehending not only the Low and 
High-German, but also the Scandinavian, have a striking similarity, and 
are evidently of cognate origin. The short history of each language, 
accompanied with extracts, and a detail of their most evident peculiarities, 
have occupied so much space, and engaged the attention so long, that it 
may be desirable to advert again to their similarity. They appear as 
dialects of one extensive language, branches of one vigorous stock, or 
streams from the same copious fountain. A recollection of this will, in 
some degree, restore to order the confusion of Babel, and therefore very 
much facilitate the acquisition of languages.* An appeal to the Germanic 
languages will be a sufficient proof, not only of their similarity, but of their 
identity. This likeness and close relationship will be clearly manifest by 
a few examples from their vocabularies and grammatical inflections. 

2. In the following examples, the v in the Dutch visch has exactly 
the same sound as the English/; hence fish has the same name in all the 
Germanic languages. 

Eng. A.-S. Dut. Frs, Ger. Moes. Dan, Swed. Jcel. 

a fish fisc visch fisk fisch fisk-s fisk fisk fisk-r 

a fish's fisc-es visch-esf fisk-es fisch-es fisk-is fisk-s fisk-s fisk-s 

to a fish fisc-e visch-e fisk-e fisch-e fisk-a fisk fisk fisk-i 

a fish fisc visch fisk fisch fisk fisk fisk fisk 

fishes fisc-as visch-en fisk-ar fisch-e fisk-os fisk-e fisk-ar fisk-ar 

fishes' fisc-a visch-en fisk-a fisch-e fisk-e fisk-es fisk-ars fisk-a 

to fishes fisc-um visch-en fisk-um fisch-en fisk-en tisk-e fisk-ar fisk-um 

fishes fisc-as visch-en fisk-ar fisch-e fisk-ans fisk-e fisk-ar fisk-a. 

3. The identity of the Germanic languages will be still more evident if 
a few examples be taken from what has been generally called the irregular 
parts of these languages. It may be useful to remark, that the Moes. A.-S. 
and Eng. \> or th, in Dut. Dan. and Swed. is chansjed into d. The Dan. 
jeg and mig are pronounced yih and mih : the Sioed. jag and mig are 
sounded yih and mih. 

* Classification and association are of the utmost importance in learning languages. The 
greater part of European tongues in the south and west are those of Germanic, and those 
of Roman origin. The Germanic class embraces the modern English, German, Dutch, Danish, 
Swedish, Norwegian, Icelandic, &c.; the Roman or Latin comprises the Spanish, Italian, Por- 
tuguese, French, &c. To this subject has been drawn the attention of an old friend, the 
Rev. VV. Pulling, M.A., A.S.L. Rector of Dymchurch, Kent. He was induced to deliver in 
the University of Cambridge "A course of Lectures on the French, Italian, Spanish, and 
Portuguese languages, and their chief dialects, Cambridge, 1834." These interesting and 
valuable Lectures deserve attention, and it is greatly to be wished that Mr. Pulling may 
receive sufficient encouragement to carry into effect his intention of publishing a volume 
containing short grammars of the languages of Roman origin, to be followed by another 
volume comprising grammars of the Germanic tongues. 

t The Dutch, &c. now generally use prepositions instead of the old terminations: thus, 
Dut. van een visch of a fish, instead of visches. 



AFFINITY OF THE GERMANIC LANGUAGES. 



clxni 



Etig. I am, be: A.-S. ic eom, beo : Frs. ik ben : Plat, ick bin, em : Dut. ik bin, 

em : Moes. ik im : Ger, ich bin : Icel. ek er, em : Dan. jeg er : Swed. jag ar Eng. 

I was : -4.-*^. ic waes: Frs. ik was: Plat, ick was: Dut. ik was; ikfoe*. ik was : 
Ger. ich war : Icel. er var : Dan. jeg var : Swed. jag vas — Eng. come, p. came, pp. 
come : A.-S. cume, p. com, pp. cumen : Frs. kem, p. kom, /;/?. kemen : Plat, kom, 
/?. kwam, />/). gekomen . Dut. kome, p. kwam, pp. gekomen : Moes. quima, p. quam, 
pp. quuman(s) : Ger. komme, p. kam, pp. (ge)kommen : Icel. kem, p. kom, pp. ko- 
minn : Dan. kommer, p. kam, pp. kummen : Swed. kommer, p. kom, pp. kommen. 
— Eng. thou : A.-S. ]>\x : Frs. thu : Plat- thu : Flem. du : Moes. thu : Ger. du : 

Icel. >u : Dan. du : Swed. du Eng. who : ^.-/S. hwa : Frs. hwa : PZa^. huie : 

Dut. wie : Moes. hwa(s) : Ger. wer : Icel. hwa(r) : Dan. hwo : Swed. ho Eng. 

good, better, best. ^.-«S, god (bet), betra, betst : Frs. god, bettre, (betere), beste ; 
Dut. goed, beter, best: Moes. goths (god(s) or bats), batiza, batist(s) : Ger. gut, 
besser, beste : Icel. g6d(r) bettri, bestr : Dan. god, bedre, beste : Swed. god, battre, 
bast. 

4. If these examples do not convince the reader that these languages 
are mere dialectic variations of one ancient tongue, perhaps the following 
declension of the pronoun of the first person may produce full conviction. 



Eng. 


J.-S. 


Dut. 


Frs. 


Ger. 


Moes. 


Dan. 


Swed. 


Icel. 


I 


ic 


ik 


ik 


ich 


ik 


jeg 


jag 


ek 


mine 


min 


mins 


min 


mein 


meina 


min 


min 


min 


to me 


me 


raij 


mi 


mir 


mis 


mig 


mig 


mer 


me 


me 


mij 


mi 


mich 


mik 


mig 


mig 


mik 


we 


we 


wij 


wi 


wir 


weis 


wi 


wi 


wer 


our 


lire 


onzer 


use 


unser 


unsara 


vor 


war 


war 


to us 


us 


ons 


us 


uns 


uus 


OS 


OSS 


OSS 


us 


us 


ons 


us 


uns 


uns 


03 


OSS 


OSS. 



5. In the most irreojular parts of the Germanic languages, even at the 
present day, there is a complete correspondence, which shows that there 
must have been a time when the nations of Germanic origin were all 
united in one tribe. Some branches of this great Gothic family have not 
had any close intercourse or alliance for many centuries; the present simi- 
larity of their languages must then have arisen from a close anterior 
connexion. The period of this connexion it is not easy to specify ; but it 
must have been very early and intimate, as the similarity is most evident 
in the words wliich designate what was most necessary, in the rudest state 
of society, and in those verbs generally called irregular,* and which are 
even now most in use. This early connexion it is very important to observe, 
and it is the part of scientific etymology to show it in the clearest light. 



* Ten Kate's Atileiding tot de Kenisse van de Nederduitsche Sprake, vol. ii. p. 12, § XI. 



clxi? 



XIII.— THE IMPORTANCE OF ETYMOLOGY,* THE MANNER OF FORMING 
WORDS, AND AN OUTLINE OF THE GERMAN SYSTEM. 

1. Words are the creation of mind. As the true philosopher looks 
with humble adoration, from the variety and perfection of God's visible 
creation to the power and goodness of the Creator, so the philosophic 
etymologist is constantly led, from the various forms and applications of 
words, to contemplate the intellectual powers in which man most resembles 
his Creator. The true and judicious etymologist is anxious to obtain the 
right meaning and application of words, and thus a good etymologist is 
most likely to become the best metaphysician. He is not satisfied with 
the common and external signification of words received from popular use, 
but lie examines their structure, their radical, that is, their real and 
internal meaning, and thus endeavours to discover the reason of the 
application of the term. When the understanding is thus called into 
exercise in the formation of words, precision is not only given to ex- 
pression, but the higher faculty of reason lends its powerful aid to the 
memory, and greatly facilitates the acquisition of a language. The ety- 
mology of a word being understood, and thus the sanction of reason 
obtained, neither that word nor any of its family can scarcely ever escape 
from the memory. The use of etymology will, however, be best proved by 
a few plain examples, showing the real meaning of some common words. 

Acorn, A.-S. aeceren, secern, from ac, ac an oak; cern or corn corn, the corn or 
fruit of the oak — Childhood, A.-S. cildhad, from cild a child, had a condition, state^ 
a child's condition.— Kvagdora, A.-S. cyngdom, cynuigdom, from cyning, cyng 
a king; dom power, jurisdiction, a king's jurisdiction, or dominion. — Island, A.-S. 

ealand, from ea water, land land; water-land, land surrounded with water Sheriff, 

or shirereeve, A.-S. scir-gerefa, from scir a share, division, shire, county ; gerefa 

a reeve, governor, a governor of a shire Neighbour, A.-S. neah-bur, from neah 

near; bur a bower, dwelling, one who has a dwelling near — Righteous, A.-S. rihtwis, 
from riht right, just; wis wise, right wise, honest, yzW^ow^.— FosterchUd, -^.-aS. foster- 
cild, from foster ^o<i, nourishment; cild a child, a child that receives food from 
a person who is not its parent, ^"c. 

2. In looking at the first formation of words in the origin of language, 
it may be observed, that a knowledge of things appears to be conveyed to 
the mind through the medium of the five senses, especially by the sight. 
An idea or image of a visible object is formed in the mind by means of 
the eye ; and the word which, when written or spoken, conveys this image 

• Etymology is thus defined : — Optime Cicero E-rvfioXoyiav. Latine vertit veriloquium. 
Eumque merito defendit Martinius: certe verbotim non potuit niehus Cicero. Nam certum 
est, quod Itv/xov sit verum: et sTUfioXoyo^, qui to etv/xov Xsyti. Scaliger tamen Etymologiam 
sic definit, tanquam esset a X.070S ratio. Etymologia, iuquit, est vocis ratio, id est vis, qua vox 
a voce gencratur. — Wackier' s Glos, Germ. Prolcgcm. f'll. 



NOUNS THE PRIMITIVE WORDS. clxv 

to the mind, is called a noun. If it be most probable that the general 
appearance of a material thing would be impressed on the mind before 
any particular part or action of the thing, then nouns* must be the primi- 
tive words in language. Every noun or thing which has an existence, 
must have either an action or state of being, and the word which expresses 
that action or state of being is denominated a verb. If, after the general 
outline of an object was formed in the mind, the attention were fixed upon 
its action or state of being, then verbs were formed subsequently to nouns. 
Thus all things material were first designated by the noun, while the 
subsequent motions of these objects were indicated by the verb in its 
simplest form.f 

3. This reasoning is corroborated by the structure not only of the Ger- 
manic languages but of the Shemitic. 

A few examples may be first cited from the Hebrew, where the roots of words have 
been generally said to exist only in the verb, from which nouns were always said to 
be formed. The following verbs, however, evidently spring from nouns. From ^^.^ 
ath a stooping, 'n'^'2 nethe to incline, bow down; — ^bs dX poiver, strength, nbw ale to 
exercise power in injuring, to curse; — ]S an labour, ps anen to be faint with labour, 
to complain; — P]M B^pheat, anger, nSM ape to operate as heat, to bake; — ^-)S ar a river, 
what flows, XV^)A are to be flowing off, to crop, "THM arer to flow or takejrom, to curse; 
— tt7W asflre, U^W^ ases to be fired, angry, or grieved; — ^TIS at a sign, thou, the sub- 
stance of a thing, nnS ate to come, come near^ to approach; — "721 bed what is separate, 
a branch, desert, 'XX^L beded to be alone; — "j^ ben a son, T\y2. bene to build, to build 
up, to continue, as a son builds up or continues the family or line of his father; — "^i 
id a hand, fTT^ ide to put forth, to extend; — t?-^ oj a tree, niJ2? oje to be as a tree, to 
make firm or steady. 

4. In Greek some verbs appear also to be formed from nouns. 

'S.ako^ agitation of the sea, the sea, traksvui I sea, I act as the sea, I shake, or agitate: 
— ayycXos a messenger, angel, ayytXXw J act as a messenger, I bring information, 

* Kimkhi expressly declares QtJ^nD M!^"^ b^^DH ^^^ '^^^^ proceeds from the noun. See 
Professor Lee's Heb. Gram. 8vo. London, 2nd edit. 1832, Lect.VI. Art. 144,146; and Lect.X. 
Art. 182, § 2, note, for some interesting facts on this subject. " In Burman, verbs are nothing 
more than nouns conjugated with the pronouns." — Id. Lect. VI. Art. 144, § 1, note (*). See 
also my Compendious Gram, of the Anglo-Saxon Language, Svo. London, 1S26, ch. VIL p. 57. 

Locke says, " I doubt not, if we could trace words to their sources, we should find, in all 
languages, the names that stand for things that fall not under our senses, to have had their first 
rise from sensible objects. — On Human Understanding, bk. 3, ch. L 

Notiones verborum propriae omnes sunt corpores, sive ad res pertinentes, quae sensus nos- 
tros feriunt. — Van Lennep, p. 7. Nee alias esse (verborum significationes) nisi corporeas, 
sive eas, quibus res, sensibus, exterius expositce, designantur. — Id. Anal. p. 41. Mr. Richardson 
in Gents. Mag. April, 1836, p. 373. 

The Germanic literati differ in opinion on this subject. Many eminent etymologists declare 
that the roots of all words were originally verbs. Professor J. Grimm, though of the same 
opinion, uses a more cautious expression, and says verbs appear to be the foundation of all 
words. {Deutsche Gram. II. 5.) It is true that many words originate from verbs; but it is 
erroneous to attempt to trace all words to verbs as their root. Professor Grimm, on the 
supposition that all roots were verbs, has quoted a great number of verbs as lost which 
probably never existed : this great investigator, adds Schmitthenner, is certainly led astray by 
a false supposition. {Schmitthenner' s Etymol. Darmstadt, Svo. 1833, p. 20 — 23.) In § 17 he says, 
" the root is neither a noun nor a verb, but what precedes both," &c. 

t Sir Graves C. Haughton's *' Inquiry into the nature of Language," prefixed to his elaborate 
and very learned Dictionary of Bengali and Sanskrit, 4to. London, 1833, p. 4. 



clxvi VERBS ARE DERIVED FROM NOUNS. 

I tell: — aytoz/, -wj/os a covfihat, battle, ayoovia a conflict of mind, distress, agony, ayuviaia 
I am in agony, am distressed : ^atO^os, ddXos a combat, aeOXevM, adXau) I fight, combat: 
— difia, -dros the effusioji ofblood, difiai, -ddoi blood streaming from a wound, dt-ixacaui 
I stain with blood: — ai-xp-n a spear, aLXjialw I fight with a spear, brandish : — ciKfi-n the 
point, top, maturity, aKfialw I grow up to maturity, ripen, Sfc. 

5. The root or origin of a verb in Welsh is, as the learned Dr. Davies 
remarked, for the most part, a noun, as dysc doc trina ; dyscms doc ui ; 
car amicus, carav amo, vel amabo. This substantive, adds the same 
writer, is generally identical with thg third person singular of the future 
indicative, (as in Hebrew the third of the preterite is the root,) or with 
the second of the imperative, which forms are generally the same.* 

6. The Germanic languages afford many examples of verbs evidently 
derived from nouns. 

From A'-S. dasl : Plat. But. deel : Frs. del : Moes. dails : Ger. theil : Old Ger. 
deil : Icel deil : Dan. deel : Swed. del a part, pars ; we have the following verbs in 
A.-S. dasl-an : Plat, del-en : But. deel-en : Frs. del-a : Moes. dail-jan : Old Ger. 
deil-an : Icel. deil-a : Ban. deel-e : and Swed. del-a to give a part, to separate, divide. 
—From A.-S. meolc, mile : Plat. But melk : Ger. milch : Old Ger. miluh, milich : 
Icel. miolk : Ban. malk : and Swed. mjolk milk, lac, we have the following verbs in 
A.-S. meolc-ean : Plat. But. melk-en : Ger. melk-en : Old Ger. melk-an : Icel. 
miolk-a ; Ban. malk-e : and Swed. mjolk-a to afford or give milk, to milk, to draw 
milk; mulgere — From A.-S. rec : Plat. But. rook ; Frs. rec, rek: Ger. ranch : Icel. 
reykr : Ban. rog : and Swed. rok smoke, exhalatio ; we have the following verbs 
in A.-S. rec-an : Plat But rook-en : Frs. rek-a to smoke, dwell in, inhabit: Ger. 
rauch-en : Icel. reyk-ia : Ban. rog-e : and Swed. rok-a to give a smoke, to smoke, to 
KEEK; fumare, exhalare. 

7. Both nouns and verbs are formed into adjectives. 

Some nouns are used as adjectives without any alteration ; but adjectives in A.-S. 
are generally formed by annexing to the noun or verb, -en, -ig, -isc, from an, unnan, 
ican or ecan to give, add,, eke; also, -baer bearing, producing; — cund born, a kind, 
sort; -ece eternal; -ende; -fsest fast, firm ; -fuW full, plenty; -lie like; -sum some, 
part, &c. — As la<S n. evil, mischief; laS adj. evil, pernicious ; gold gold, -en add, add 
or join something, as golden >raed golden thread; blod blood, hlodig bloody ; wit mind, 
wit, w'ltig ivitty ; folc folk, iolcisc like the people, plebeian ; aeppelbaer apple-bearing; 
leohtbaer light-bearing ; eort5cund earthly ; godcund divine ; efenece coeternal ; cen- 
nan to bear, cennende bearing ; drincan to drink, drincende drinking ; faran, feran to 
go, ferende going ; se law, ^fsdst fast in the law, firm, religious; tnngiul full of tongue, 
talkative; eorS earth, eorSlic earthlike, earthly; lufu love, luflic lovelike, lovely ; lang 
long, langsum longsome, lasting ; wyn pleasure, wynsum some pleasure, pleasant. 

S. Adverbs are often formed by frequently using nouns in certain 
cases. 

Thus hwilum awhile, noic, d. of hwil time, space ; J'onces of gratitude, jjonce with 
gratitudcy gratefully, thankfully, g. and d. of ]>a.nc favour, &c. 

9. The remarks in paragraphs 3 and 4 can only refer to words in 
their first formation. In a subsequent stage of language, many nouns 
have evidently had their origin from verbs, adjectives, &c. 

• See Dr. Davies' Antiquae Lingua; Britannicae Rudimcnta, and Dr. Prichard's Cehic 
Nations, p. 178. 



GERMAN ETYMOLOGISTS. clxvii 

Thus hunta^ a hunting, chase, from huntian to hunt; fisco^ ajishing, from fiscian 
to fish; gelicnes likeyiess, fromgelicMe; hraednes rcarfmcss, from hraed rearfy; hraed- 
licnys readiness, from hraedlic rea^/y, quick; blawung a blowing, from blawan to blow ; 
haX healthy, sound; halig Ao/y, \\a\\%Q.n to consecrate ; \idX\^Aom. a sanctuary ; halignes 
holiness ; halgung, gehalgung a hallowing, consecration, Sfc. 

10. All that is here stated, as well as what is advanced in the preceding 
paragraphs, is the mere threshold of etymology, that which is the most 
evident and palpable; but perhaps it may have appeared that even this 
incipient knowledge is not destitute of utility. Should there be a desire 
to enter into the arcana of etymology, or to fathom its deep abyss, much 
time and attention must be devoted to the works of German philologists,* 
as the etymology of the Teutonic languages has been carried to great 
extent by some of the most able men in Germany. They have adopted 
the principle, and introduced much of the refinement discovered and 
applied by Sanscrit grammarians. Every one who investigates the subject 
must acknowledge there is much metaphysical nicety in their mode of 
treating it, and much laborious exertion to make it intelligible. Though 
such talents and industry certainly deserve attention, yet the great question 
is, whether in the western tongues these metaphysical subtleties can be 
made available to practical utility. The learned and indefatigable Dr. 
Becker, in his German Grammar for Englishmen, with many of his coun- 
trymen, asserts that their system is found most efficient in practice. It is, 
therefore, only common justice to let these erudite Germans speak for 
themselves, or rather to allow one to explain for the whole. A recent 
writer, and one of the least diffuse and most able after Professor Bopp f 
and Grimm, is Professor Schmitthenner, from whose Introduction to the 
Short German DictionaryX the following abstract of the German language 
is taken. The substance is only given, but where it is translated the version 
is as close as possible. 

1 1. Of VOWELS. The modern German has five simple vowels, a, e, i, o, u. 
Three of these are radical vowels, a, i, u. The two others, e and a, are only shades 

of a, i, u. The y of the A.-S. and the old northern dialects has something analogous 
in a soft u, but it is unknown to the other German dialects. It is borrowed from the 

* See Von der Wortbildung, in vol. ii. p. 1 — 923 of Professor J. Grimm's Deutsche Gram- 
matik, 8vo. Gottingen, 1826. — Die Deutsche "Wortbildung von Dr. Becker, Svo. Frankfurt 
am Main, 1824, and all the other valuable publications of Der frankfurtischen Gelehrten- 
vereinigung fiir deutsche Sprache, Herman, Frankfurt, &c. 

t Though Professor Bopp, whose general erudition, and critical knowledge of Sanscrit 
in particular, are universally admitted, was so obliging as to send the author a copy of his 
Vocalismus immediately on publication ; it is impossible to give a clear abstract of so learned 
and profound a work in the short space which can be here devoted to the subject. Those, 
therefore, who read German, must peruse and reperuse Vocalismits, oder Sprachvergleichende 
Kritiken iiber J. Grimm's deutsche Grammatik, urtd Graff's althochdeutchen Sprachschatz, mit 
Begrundu7}g einer neuen Theorie des ablauts von Franz Bopp, 8vo. Berlin, 1836. An English 
translation of this work would be a most acceptable boon to the public. Professor Bopp goes 
at once to the oriental source, and with a new theory of the ablaut, opposed to Dr. Grimm, 
(see § 11) he shows how much the vocalism of the Germanic languages may be philosophically 
explained by the system of Indian grammarians, and proves that the ablaut, or change of the 
radical vowel, is influenced by the vowel of the termination. 

X Kurzes Deutsches Wijrterbuch fiir Etymologie, Synonymik, und Orthograijhie von Fried- 
rich Schmitthenner, Darmstadt, Svo. 1834. 



clxviii THE RADICAL VOWELS, GUNA, &C. 

Greek; but in earlier times it was also used in some original German words to 
express i. It must be ascribed to the form of the epiglottis, that there can only be 
three original vowels, though in a variety of shades and colouring. This is a natural 
fact in language and grammar. All other vowels are only considered as shades and 
approximations. Of these three,* the vowel a is the easiest, most simple, and 

universal sound The radical vowels undergo various changes in the declension and 

formation of words 1 . By a shade changing the i into e, and the u into o ; as Moes. 

niman, Ger. nehmen to take : Moes. giban, Grer. geben to give : Moes. ufto, Ger. oft 

often : Moes. fugls, Ger. vogel a bird 2. By upsound (auflaut) or thinning of the 

vowel or sound, by earlier etymologists called (umlaut). If, for instance, in the 
inflection or formation of a radical syllable which has a, o, or u, and consequently 
a strong full vowel, an i is added, but which in the new German is changed into e, or 
entirely omitted ; then these three vowels change into a higher but weaker sound, the 
a into a or e, the o into o, and the u into u ; as adel, edel : Old Ger. adal, edili : 
ast a branch, aeste branches : Gott God, gotter gods : Old Ger. kot, kotier : blut, 
bliitig, and blutig : Old Ger. pluot, pluotic, or pluotac — 3. By change of vowels 
(umlaut), or change of one vowel into another, by some etymologists improperly 
called offsound (ablaut). In the formation of a word it thus happens that some roots 
of a go over into i and u, as binde, band, gebunden, properly band, binde, gebunden. 
— 4. By insound (inlaut), in the Sanscrit called Guna, that is, in the formation of 
a word another vowel is placed before the radical vowel, like an internal augment, to 
denote the change which an idea undergoes. From the nature of the vowels the 
following law is deduced, — that the insound or guna can only proceed in the following 
order, a, i, u. A can be placed before « (a -{- a), before i (a + 0> and u (a -\- u) ; 
i only before i (i -f- 1). and before u (i -|- w), and u only before u (u -{• u) Accord- 
ing to the radical vowels, or what we call organic sounds^ there can, in reality, only 
exist the following six diphthongs, aa, ai, au, ii, iu, uu — In the reverse series, the 
vowels may be also compounded, but they form, as the pronunciation directly shows, 
no simple diphthongs. The diphthongs in the new High- German are formed partly 
by shades which the radical vowels or sounds suffer, and partly according to the pecu- 
liarity of the dialect which is become the written language, as u, (o), ai, au, (o), ei, eu, 
and ie — In pronunciation and writing, the w as a diphthong is put aside ; but it ought to 
have the power of a -\- a in the explanation of words. The three simple vowels a, i, u, 
with the guna f aa, ai, au, ii, iu, uu, are partly the natural and partly the historical 
normal sounds, and the original type of vocalism. 

12. In the different dialects, the vowels, by upsound, shading, disorgani- 
zation, &c. are softened and tinged different ways, but all in a certain order 
and according to determined rules. Thus, as the comparative zoologist is 
able to recognise the type of the genus in all deviations of the form of the 
single animal, so the comparative etymologist must be able to reduce the vo- 
calism of the dialect to its original type, and thus comprehend it, for otherwise 
his perception is dark, and his whole proceeding uncertain, and vain error. 
Some complain that the doctrine of the guna is difficult, but nothing is 
more simple. In the diphthong we have only to consider the first letter 
as a prefix, denoting the formation, an inserted vowel equal to the insound 

• A table of the changes of the radical vowels in the Germanic tongues will be found in Dr. 
Grimm's Deutsche Grammatik, vol. i. 573, 575 ; a table of the long vowels in p. 578. 

t A table of the vowel forms, by the application of guna, in the Germanic languages maybe 
seen in p. 59 of Schmitthenner's Deutsche Etymologie, 12mo. Darmstadt, 1833. 



CHANGE OF CONSONANTS. clxix 

(inlaut), and the last letter as the radical vowel. In some cases, only ie 
makes an exception. 

13. The modern German has the following sounds : A, d='ae; oz = a -|- i ; au = 
a -j- M : £ = a, e, ei, e : Ei == ai, i (i -(- i) : Eu = iu : I = old iu, to, ai, ei : 
O = u; 6 = au, old uo, a; o = the increased sound ofo: U, u ^ gunited a; u the 
upsound of u and u — 4. By the preceding, it is clear there are only three radical 
vowels from which the others take their origin ; thus from A originates o, a, e, i (e), 
w, (o), ii, 6; I goes over into e, ei, (ai), ie : ?7 changes into o, ie, eu, aM— Hence it 
is very easy, in a great number of cases, to recognize the radical vowel in a word, 
especially by comparing it with other words of the same family. We often find the 
root in verbs, as soon as the vowel of the perfect tense is divested of all its changes 
by guna and upsound. From binde, band, bund bind, bound, bound, we find band 
is the root. From ritt rode, reiten to ride, is the root rit a riding. From fliege, flog 
jiy,fiew is the root Aug a flight. 

14. Of consonants. The natural articulation of the consonants ac- 
cording to the organs, is represented in the following table. 

a. b. c. 

labial. lingual. palatine. 

A. Half mute sounds. w h j 

(Breathing sound, 
Spirans.) 

B. The sibilant (sibilans) f, s. 

C. The liquids m 1 nr 

D. The mutes (mutae). 
(soft b d g 



P t 



bb. 



Simple. {7' 
I hard 

Aspirate. { J {J 

Sibilant. < 



(th) ch 

sz —^ 



rff Z X. 

It is evident, by this table, that in the modern Ger. the aspirated palatine and the 
sibilant labial sounds are wanting, while it has a double aspirated labial and a double 
sibilant lingual sound. The 5- is a double letter. The s possesses a double sound, 
the one is expressed by s, and the other by sh. 

15. No root or radical word has originally a double consonant of the same kind. 
An original i in the derivation has given rise to gemination or hardening of the sound, 
which is found nearly in all words of the same family. In this manner originated 



mm 
11 


from mj 
- Ij 


as schemmen 
-^ hblle 


from suamjan 
— helja 


nn 


— nj 


— rennen 


— ranjan 


rr 

pf (Old Ger. pph) 

tz (zz) 

ck (Old Ger. cch) 


— rj 

— Phj 

— zj(tj) 

— kj or hj 


— sperren 
-^ hiipfen 

— setzen 

— zicke 


^ sparjan 
-^ huphjan 
.^ satjan 
— zikja. 



This law is of great importance in etymology, showing how to reduce words with 
a double final letter to their roots. Instead of the double letter, we ought to put the 
soft simple letter ; and, instead of the upsound, originated by the derivative i, there 
must be a full original vowel. Thus, for example, from kennen to know, comes the 



clxx THE ROOT OF WORDS. 

root kan ; Old Ger. chan ; from fallen to fall, the root fal, Old Ger. val ; from biicken 
to bow, the root bug — by guna biegen to bend {Old Ger. puk — piokan); from ricke 
a doe, reh (instead of rih), &c. In the old as well as in the modern Ger. language, 
a double consonant is used in writing only to express the sharpening of the con- 
sonant. 

16. Of the root. The root is the simple syllable which designates 
the first appearance of a thing. According to its signification it has 
a simple vowel a, i, u, and a single consonant. It is often very easy to 
discover the root, ^or we need only take from the word the vowel fiarming 
the umlaut, and the guna (inlaut) ; the gemination, and the terminating 
syllables. 

For example, let us take from the verb leuchten to light, the guna e, and the post- 
fixed syllable ten; then wUl remain luch, Old Ger. luh, Lat. luc-ere From fuhr 

(^Old Ger. vuor) take the guna, then remains fahr (^Old Ger. var), &c. In general, 
a comparison with the old form is quite necessary. 

17. According to its signification the root is neither a noun nor a verb, 
but it is what precedes both. It is the expression of the simplest intuition 
by a sound, without determining any associate idea of the gender, the 
time, &c. 

Let us take the appearance of blau, — then the root is blu, /. Lat. fulvus (which, 
however, signifies something else,) and by guna blau the expression of the sound 
instead of it without any further determination, whether it be a thing, a quality, or 
only a relation. But being in reality a quality, it is afterwards used as an adjective, 
and the principal word or noun blaue blueness, and the verb blauen to blue or to make 
blue, are only derived fram it by additional letters. In the same manner let us take 
the impression which the cry of chickens or crows produces on the ear ; the simplest 
expression of the sound will be kra, Old Ger. chra. As this impression quickly 
vanishes, there is directly formed the verb krahen to crow. Old Ger. chrahan ; present 
tense ich krahe J crow. Old Ger. chra-hu, and krahte, Old Ger. chra-ta I crew, and 
also in the same manner the noun das krahen the crowing, Old Ger. chia-t ; die krahe 
the crow. Old Ger. chra-ja, &c. In this manner language springs up everywhere full 
of fine signification and inexhaustible life. 

Of the formation of words by umlaut and inlaut, or by change of 
vowels and by guna, 

18. This takes place when, for the designation of the gender, case, or 
time, vowels or sounds are added. The transition of the root into diflferent 
words is in all cases easily understood. Let us take the root luh. New Ger. 
hell clear, light, then by guna (inlaut) and an added t, is formed lioht. 
New Ger. licht (instead of liecht) the clearness, light; and also the adj. 
licht light, &c. 

The determination of the sigriification of words and roots. 

19. Language generally originates from the most simple perception of 
our senses. The appearances which offer themselves to the sight, not 
yet dimmed by any reflection, are the qualities and the relation of things 



IMPORTANCE OF UMLAUT AND GUNA. clxXl 

in time and space, such as, lights dark: — blacky white: — great , small: — 
standing, running — to rise, to fall, &c. 

20. These appearances are immediately determined or marked by the 
language, whether they are resting qualities, as; blue, yellow, great, 
small, &c., or a temporal relation, as, flows, stands, burns, smokes, &c., 
or only relations of space and number, as; by, at^ for— one, two, &c. 
Things, of which the appearance only shows the special situation, the 
number and their relation, can only be designated by language in such 
a manner that it either points to their situation in space, by which pro- 
nouns originate, as, /, he, his, that, &c., or it describes them by nominating 
their qualities and their temporal relation, as, the bird, the fl.oating in air. 
Thus originate the names of things, and each name is originally a short 
description. 

21. It is the task of etymology to pursue the signification now in use, 
through all changes, till we come to the radical signification. So we are 
led to a proper knowledge of the language, as a clear conception of the 
common signification can, in general, be only discovered in the light of the 
radical meaning. 

22. Easy as it may be, in most cases, to find the form of the root by 
decomposing the words, yet it is often difficult to ascertain the original 
signification. Where it remains perceptible to the senses, it is imme- 
diately discovered : thus, fliessen tofloio, from the moving on of the fluid • 
wehen to blow, from the soft movement of the air; blau blue, from a colour, 
&c. In other cases there are difficulties which can only be overcome by 
close investigation. 

23. The doctrine of the interchange of consonants,* and that of umlaut f 
and gunaj are the two gates which lead into the sanctuary of etymology. 
The former opens the insight into the true nature of the consonants, the 
latter into that of the vowels. He, then, who has a clear view of these 
two doctrines, has received the consecration, and can look into the interior 
of the sanctuary. § 

*§14. t§n,iii. t § 11, iv.; § 12, 13. 

§ It ought to be acknowledged again, that this is a very imperfect view, but the shortest 
and best that could be found. Those who would enter fully into the subject, must consult 
the original authorities quoted throughout this abstract, and especially Professor J. Grimm's 
invaluable Deutsche Grammatik, 3 vols. 8vo. Gbttingen ; Bopp's Vocalismus, with the works 
of Schmeller, Becker, Wiillner, Graff, &c. See xiii. § 10. 



clxxi 



XIV.— AN ACCOUNT OF THE WORK. 

1. After much consideration, the Roman character has been adopted 
in printing the A.-S. words, with the exception of the two peculiar letters 
j> and S, an account of which will be found under p in the Dictionary^ 
With all the prejudices of an antiquarian taste, and an eye long familiar 
with the form in which the words had been accustomed to be read, in 
what has been called the Anglo-Saxon character, and with the difficulty 
of recognizing the same words when presented in a different dress, it 
required a strong reason to justify the rejection of the old letters. Nothing 
but a thorough conviction that the Roman character would be the most 
legible, and would best show the identity of the present English with 
the Anglo-Saxon, as well as the clear analogy existing in the words of 
all the other Germanic languages, would have led to the adoption of 
this type. As a table is given for the sound of the letters in the chief 
languages used in the Dictionary, this opportunity is taken to introduce 
the peculiar characters of each language.* Words from the oriental 
tongues being written from right to left, and difficult to express in 
European letters alone, are given in their original characters; but for 
facility of comparison they are also represented in Roman letters. 

2. It was originally intended to exclude all impure Anglo-Saxon words, 
and to introduce none of a later date than a.d. 1100. Subsequently 
it was found desirable to take a wider range, and to include some terms 
of a more recent formation. f These are mostly from the Anglo-Saxon 
Chronicle, with their date affixed. As the authors are always quoted, 
the age and purity of a word can at once be seen. The radical and 
some other chief words are generally printed in capitals. Accents are 
now adopted, as they were evidently employed by the Anglo-Saxons to 
distinguish long from short vowels : thus, ac an oak, ac but ; is ice, is 
is; })e thee, \iQ the; for went, for /or, &c. They are only used in this 
Dictionary on the word and its variations standing at the head of each 
article, this being sufficient for all practical purposes. — That orthography 
is, for the most part, strictly followed which is found most frequently in 
the best authors : still the principal variations in the literal expression of 
a word are added in the order in which they vary from what is deemed 
the correct spelling. No fancy or presumption has been permitted in 
the orthography ; but all authors have been allowed to answer for 
themselves and to appear in their own dress, without a wish to dictate 
the mode in which it is now presumed they ought to have written. 

* See the table at the end of the Dictionary. 

t As many words were omitted in the early part of the alphabet, the supplement is ren- 
dered much more extensive than would otherwise have been necessary. 



PARALLEL TERMS. clxXlii 

A reference is constantly made to the place where the word is found, and 
the reader left to form his own judgment. Even verbs in -gian are 
inserted when they are discovered so written. Verbs with the prefixes 
be-, ge-, on-, &c., are frequently placed under the radical word; but if 
found in the infinitive mood, or in any form directly derived from the 
infinitive, such verbs are given, with a brief explanation, in the alpha- 
betical order of the prefixes be-, ge-, &c., v^rith a reference to the 
radical word for a full explanation. The majority of words have exactly 
the same sense with or without the prefixed ge-, as nySerian, and geny«er- 
ian to humble, (Lk. xiv, 1 1 : Ps. xvii, 29.) — No pains have been spared 
to ascertain and express the precise grammatical inflections. Every 
known irregularity in a word is placed in its alphabetical order, with 
its meaning : thus, code went, delivered, the perfect tense, is referred to 
the infinitive gan to go. If the meaning be all that is required, it is 
thus ascertained at once ; but should the derivation and other particulars 
be desired, they may be found under the word to which a reference is 
made. 

3. With the view of illustrating the Anglo-Saxon, nearly all the radical 
words, and a few important compounds, are followed by the parallel 
terms* from the cognate dialects. Synonymes without a meaning attached 
have the same signification as the A.-S. word under which they are 
brought. When it was diflScult to ascertain whether the noun or verb 
was the radical, parallels are occasionally inserted under both. To show 
more clearly the analogy of cognate languages, an attempt has been made 
to arrange the parallel terms in the most natural order. The Low (Piatt) 
German is generally placed first, because it is now spoken by the people 
who inhabit the territory formerly occupied by the Old-Saxons, the 
progenitors of our Anglo-Saxon ancestors. The Dutch and Friesic 
words follow, because they are of the same Low-German branch, and 
most similar to the A.-S. and Piatt. The German then succeeds with the 
Alemannic from Kero, Otfrid, &c. Francic, from a translation of Isidore 
De Nativitate, &c. and from Willeram's Canticum Canticorum: these are 
followed by the Moeso-Gothic. With this Teutonic or German branch 
is connected the Scandinavian, including the Danish, Swedish, Norwe- 
gian, Icelandic, Old Danish or Norse. The Sclavonic, Latin, Greek, 
and Celtic synonymes are not given unless they bear some striking 
affinity to the word under consideration. The following arrangement, 
beginning with the Low-German, and, as frequently as practicable, tracing 
the word through the cognate dialects, up to some oriental source, 

* The author has here the pleasure of recording the exertions of a very learned and zealous^ 
friend, a native of Holstein, well acquainted with all the Teutonic and Scandinavian dialects. 
This erudite friend, who will not allow his name to appear, has used his utmost efforts to 
verify every word introduced amongst the parallels, and to give the orthography and gender 
correctly. The laborious work of Meidinger, entitled Etymologische Worterbuch Frankfurt, 
am Main, 8vo. 1833, has been occasionally used. The Rev, G. Phillips, M.A. Fellow of 
Queens' Coll., Cambridge, has enriched the latter part of this Dictionary by his knowledge of 
the oriental languages, in selecting some parallel words from the Shemitic family. 



clxxiv ARRANGEMENT OF PARALLEL TERMS. 

will make the matter clear. This tracing of the languages upwards is 
nearly the reverse of the table of Japhetic languages in page viii. 

I. 1. Low- German, Platt-Deutsch, or Old- Saxon being the dialects spoken in 

the northern or flat and low provinces of Germany, from which the 
A.-S. originally came into Britain. Written in 

Heliand, a.d. 840. 

Tatian's Harmony, a.d. 890. 

2. Friesic, from the Asega-bok, Hettema's Friesch en Nederlandsch Woor- 

denboek, &c. 

3. Dutch, from Kilian, and Holtrop's Dictionaries, &c. 

II. 1. High-German, modern High-German, or Hoch-Deutsch ; which, since 

the time of Luther, has become the cultivated language of Germany. 

2. Francic, which was spoken by the independent tribes dwelling between 

the Rhine and Elbe, is an intermediate dialect between the German and 
Alemannic. Written in 

Hildibraht and Hadubrant, a. d. 730. 

Isidore's De Nativitate, a.d. 800. 

Willeram's Canticum, a.d. 1070. 

3. Alemannic or Suabian, which prevailed in the southern or hilly part of 

Germany. Written in 

Exhortation to Christians, a.d. 720. 

Kero, a.d. 800. 

Rhabanus Maurus, a.d. 850. 

Otfrid, A.D. 860. 

Notker, a.d. 1020. 

III. M(ESo- Gothic Written in 

The Gospels, a.d, 370. 

IV. Scandinavian : 



ino-Danicum, by 
V. The Latin Dialects are less useful in illustrating A.-S., and therefore not 



VI. 



VII. 
VIII. 



1. 


Danish ^ 




2. 


Swedish r from Dictionaries. 




3. 


Norwegian ^ 




4. 


Icelandic from Halderson's Lexicon Islandico 




Rask, 4to. 1814. 




The Latin Dialects are less useful in 


illustrating A 




so frequently introduced. 




1. 


Italian. 




2. 


Spanish. 




3. 


Portuguese. 




4. 


French. 




5. 


Latin. 




6. 


Greek. 




The Celtic Dialects. 




1. 


Welsh. 




2. 


C6rnish. 




3. 


Irish. 




4. 


Gaelic. 




5. 


Armorican. 




1. 


Arabic. 




2. 


Hebrew. 




1. 


Persian, 




2. 


Sanscrit. 





ENGLISH AND LATIN EXPLANATIONS. clxXV 

4. The derivation immediately follows the synonymes. If the word be 
uncompounded in A.-S. it is occasionally traced to an oriental origin. 
From thQ danger of giving way to fancy, on the debateable ground of 
etymology, it has been an anxious wish and constant care rather to do too 
little than too much, and to avoid a dictatorial and dogmatical spirit on 
every point, but especially in the derivation of words. Immediately after 
compound terms will be found their constituent parts with their separate 
meanings : but such compounds as at once indicate their composition, are 
not analyzed ; the literal sense of each part is then only given, in words 
which most resemble the A.-S., and for this purpose there has been no 
scruple in using some obsolete and modern provincial terms. 

5. The synonymes and derivation were placed before the explanation, 
as the radical meaning of the separate parts of a word being ascertained, 
would naturally lead to the first sense of the compound ; thus aefest [ae law, 
faest fast, fixed'^ fixed in the law, religious, devout ; religiosus. The 
explanation of the A.-S. is in English, one word of which is often iden- 
tical with the Saxon ; hence the necessity of a long paraphrastic Latin 
rendering is superseded, and the definition much shortened : but that this 
Dictionary may have the authority of Somner and Lye, and the sanction 
of the most important A.-S. authors, the principal significations are also 
added in Latin. The Latin explanation is generally the original from 
which the A.-S. translation was first made, and thus confirms the exact 
meaning on the authority of the translators, whose chief literature consisted 
in Anglo-Saxon versions from the Latin of Bede, Boethius, Orosius, and 
the Vulgate, or Latin Scriptures. In the quotations, except from the 
Bible, which is too well known to require it, an English translation is 
given, as literal as possible ; but in those from Bede, and often from the 
Bible, the Latin is retained, as it is the original from which the Saxon 
version was made, and therefore the best explanation. To the English 
translation the Latin is appended, when it indicates the grammatical order 
or the inflections of the Saxon. The following is the general plan adopted 
in the explanation : — The radical meaning is placed first, then its various 
significations arie numbered, and arranged in that order which appeared 
most accordant with the association of ideas ; — each meaning, when prac- 
ticable, is confirmed by quotations, with a reference to the authors by 
whom the word is used. Next follow the idiomatical expressions marked(II). 
In selecting examples to confirm the diflferent meanings, those have been 
preferred which illustrate the grammatical inflections. In the explanations 
and illustrations, brevity and perspicuity have always been kept in view. 
By these means, and a proper attention to as much economy of space as is 
compatible with neatness in typographical execution, more practical in- 
formation is comprised in this volume than in the two folios of Lye. 
By the English and Latin Indexes,* the Saxon to the greater part of 

* In preparing the Indexes and carrying them through the press, the obliging attentions 
of the Rev. J. Williamson, and Mr. O. H. Flowers, both of St. John's College, Cambridge, 
cannot be forgotten. 



clxxvi ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF ASSISTANCE. 

English and Latin terms may be found, the derivation and original 
meaning of most English words may be ascertained, and a comparison 
instituted with their radical cognates in the other Gothic languages. 

6. Some words have been collected from old Glossaries, with a mere 
Latin meaning. In such cases, the only mode of discovering the real 
sense was by the derivation and analogy of cognate words of Teutonic 
origin. When this failed, there was no alternative but to translate the 
Latin signification into English : thus, geman the hollow of the hand, 
sole of the foot, could only be known by translating, vola. Cot. 198. 
Some words are from Somner, Benson, and Lye, for which no other 
authority could be found. The orthography, inflection, and meaning of 
these words are given, without alteration, on the responsibility of these 
authors. 

7. As there has been a careful citation of authorities, and at the same 
time particular obligations expressed, very little more can be now required. 
A free use, without continued reference, has been made of preceding 
Dictionaries and Vocabularies, and of the A.-S. Grammar of an erudite 
friend, the late Professor Rask. Mr. Thorpe's Glossaries, appended to 
his Analecta Anglo-Saxonica, and Apollonius, and his index to Caedmon, 
have been useful auxiliaries. Citations from Caedmon have always been 
made from Mr. Thorpe's improved text, through whom, and the kindness 
of Sir Nicholas Carlisle, the learned secretary of the Society of Antiquaries, 
the perusal of some sheets was allowed before the work was published. 
Amongst those to whom the greatest debt of gratitude is due, is an old 
and faithful friend, C. S. Cardale, Esq., known to A.-S. students by the 
benefit he has rendered them in publishing his elegant and correct edition 
of Boethius. This gentleman allowed the full and free use of his extensive 
and very valuable Anglo-Saxon and English Dictionary in MS. It would be 
ingratitude not to mention the friendly communications of the Rev. S. Fox, 
or to leave unnoticed the advantages derived from his published works.* 
A well known collector of choice books, Mr. Bohn, was so obliging as 
spontaneously to lend an interleaved copy of Lye's Dictionary, with MS. 
notes by the late Rev. S. Henshall. The Rev. M. White, B.D. Professor 
of A.-S. in the University of Oxford, had given notice of his intention to 
prepare an A.-S. Dictionary, but being informed that this work was 
far advanced, Mr. White, in the most gentlemanly manner, gave up his 
intended publication. He has, however, taken the most lively interest in 
the progress of this Dictionary. 

8. This work was begun with a sanguine hope of soon bringing it to 
a satisfactory conclusion ; but it has employed every leisure hour of 
the compiler for more than seven years, four of which it has been in the 

• The following neat and valuable publications of Mr. Fox deserve the especial notice of 
Anglo-Saxon students : — Menologium, or the Poetical Calendar of the Anglo-Saxons, 8vo. 1830. 
See p. XX. note No. 17. — King Alfred's A.-S. version of Boethius, with an English translation 
and notes, Svo. 1835. See p. xix. note No. 11. 



TRUTH THE CHIEF OBJECT. clxXVli 

press. It is at last brought to a close ; and, though he has used all the 
diligence, and availed himself of every means in his power, having the 
patriotism, amidst many disadvantages, to print in his own country at his 
own expense and risk, it is far, very far from answering even his own 
expectations. He can, however, honestly declare that his utmost exertions 
have been continually made to lay before the public, in this Dictionary, 
a brief but comprehensive summary of the Anglo-Saxon language. The 
sources of information are constantly pointed out ; hence, where there are 
errors, there also are the means of discovering truth. Though he has 
always endeavoured to guard against prejudice and predilection, he is 
conscious that opinions have sometimes been advanced which may appear 
to want support. In such, and indeed in all cases, as he has stated in 
another place, he invites liberal criticism, being assured that, by the 
collision of opposite opinions, new light, if not truth, is often elicited ; and 
should this be the case, he will have cause to rejoice, whether it be pro- 
duced by himself or by a more successful investigator. 

Rotterdam, January ]st, 1837. 



aa 



THE ESSENTIALS 



ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR, 



WITH AN OUTLINE OF 



PROFESSOR RASK AND GRIMM'S SYSTEMS. 






PREFACE. 



Thirteen years have elapsed since a zealous, but very imperfect attempt | 
was made to divest Anglo-Saxon Grammar of its Latin incumbrances, and 
to offer one formed on the true genius and structure of the language in the 
publication of The Elements of the Anglo-Saxon Grammar with copious 
Notes, 8vo. 1823, pp.330. Before committing this work to the press i 
every accessible source of information was explored, and a complete 
English Translation made of Angelsaksisk Sproglcere ved R. K. Rasky 
8vo. Stockholm, 1817. In 1826, the most practical part of The Elements 
with such corrections and additions as naturally arose from a farther 
consideration of the subject, appeared with the title of A Compendious 
Grammar of the primitive English or Anglo-Saxon Language, 8vo. 
pp. 84.* The following Essentials are given as the result of a still longer 
and closer investigation of the language in the preparation of the Anglo- 
Saxon Dictionary, and a continued appeal to the grammar of a lamented 
friend, the late Professor Rask, and to the learned Deutsche Grammatik 
of Professor Grimm. It will be seen that, as information has increased, 
there has been a gradual approximation, in grammatical forms and accents, 
to the views of Professor Rask and Grimm. While there is a hope that 
these Essentials, referring only to Etymology, may be found the most 
simple and practical, a very short abstract is given of Professor Rask 
and Grimm's Grammars for the use of those who prefer, what may be 
considered the more complete systems of these celebrated men. 

* See Preface to Dictionary of the Anglo-Saxon Language, p. xx. note (§) 21. 



THE ESSENTIALS, 



Sfc. 



1. The Anglo-Saxon letters are a, b, c, d, c,^ gt h, i, (k), /, m, n, o, p, (q), r, *, 
/, w, w, Xy y, Jj, «.* 

2. The letters y, A, q, v, and z, are not found in genuine Anglo-Saxon; for k and 
q the Anglo-Saxons used c and cz<;. p, J? had the hard sound of th in fAin, thmg; and 
D, X soft, as th in ifAine, smooifA. 

8. All nouns, having the nom. s. ending in -a, -scipe, -dom, -end, and -ere, are 
masculine: those having the nom. s. in -nes, -um, -u*, -^, and -estre, are feminine: 
and those in -aern, -ed, are neuter. All nouns having the nom. and ac. pi. in -u are 
of the first declension, neuter gender. Every noun, having the nom. and ac. pi. in as, 
is masculine — All nouns making g. s. in -e are feminine. 

4. If a noun be masculine and have the nom. s. in -e, it always makes the g. in 
-an; it is therefore of the second declension. All other masculine nouns make the 
g. s. in -es, and are hence of the first declension. — All neuter nouns make the g. s. 
in -es, and are of the first declension, except a very few in -e, which are of the 

second declension, and have the g. in -an All feminine nouns having the nom. s. 

in -e are of the second declension, and make the g. in -an ; all other feminine nouns 
make the g. in -e, and are of the third declension. 

5. Synopsis of the declensions of nouns. 



\std 


^eclens 


ion. 




2nd declension. 


3rd declension. 




m. 


n. 


n. 


m. 


/• 


n. 


f 


/. 


s. nom. 


[e] 


— 


[e] 


-a 


-e 


-e 




-u 


9- 


-es 


-es 


-es 


-an 


-an 


-an 


-e 


-e 


d. 


-e 


-e 


-e 


-an 


-an 


-an 


-e 


-e 


ac. 


[e] 


-- 


[e] 


-an 


-an 


-e 


-e 


-e 


lom. ac. 


-as 


— 


u 


-an 


-an 


-an 


-a 


-a 


9- 


-a 


-a 


-a [ena] 


-ena 


-ena 


-ena 


-a 


-ena 


d. 


-um 


-um 


-um 


-um 


-um 


-um 


-um 


-um. 



6. The first declension, (except those in -u, see § 13) only comprehending m. and 
n. nouns, is known by the genitive case singular ending in -es. It includes almost 



* The following characters have been generally called Anglo-Saxon: — 

Xa, Bb, Co, Dt), ee, Fp, D^, ph, Ii, Kk, LI, 00m, Nn, Oo, Pp, Rji. S r, 
T t, Uu, Xx, Yy, Zz, pfe D«. 



NOUNS. clxxxiv 

all masculine nouns, not ending in -a or -u, such as those in -dom, wisdom, es; m. 
wisdom; -end (derived from participles) as Haelend, es ; m. the healer^ Saviour: 
-ere, fiscere, es; m. a fisher: -els, recels, es; m. incense: -ing, cyning, es; m. a 
king : -erd, -ord, -est, as hlaford, es; m. a lord: -atS, -e^, -o^, as monaS, es; m. a 
month : -scype, or -scipe, as freondscipe, es ; m. friendship ; and generally, nouns 
ending in -1, -m, -n, -r, as eorl, es; m. a nobleman: ae^m, es; m. breath: also neuter 
nouns ending in a consonant, or m two or more consonants; as word, es; n. a word: 
neuters in -e and -incle ; as rice, es; n. a kingdom: dissyllables in -el, -ol, -en, -er; as 
tungel, es ; n. a star : nouns in -ed, -et, -od, heafod, es ; n. a head. 





m. 


m. 


m. 


n. 


n. 


n. 


s. nom. ac. 


srnit^ 


end-e 


staef 


word 


ric-e 


faet 


9- 


smi«-es 


end-es 


staef-es 


word-es 


ric-es 


faet-es 


d. 


smi«-e 


end-e 


staef- e 


word-e 


ric-e 


faet-e 


pi. nom. ac. 


smi^-as 


end-as 


staf-as 


word 


ric-u 


fat-u 


9- 


smi^-a 


end-a 


staf-a 


word-a 


ric-a 


fat-a 


d. 


smi^-um 


end-um 


staf-um 


word-um 


ric-um 


fat-um 



7. In this declension the nom. and ac. cases are always the same. Masculines 
ending in a consonant, like smitS a smith ; and those in e like ende an end, are the 
most regular : nouns in -e are declined as if they had no e, like smi^, except in the 
nom. and ac. s. where it is preserved — Monosyllables with ae before a single con- 
sonant, and before st, sc, assuming another syllable with a, o, or u, in declining, 
change as into a, as in staef a letter, stafas letters ; fast a vat, fatu vats ; gaest a guest, 
gastas guests; but the ae is unchanged in staef es of a letter, in fsete to a vat, or in craeft 
craft, craeftas crafts ; because the syllables es, e, assumed in declining, do not contain 
a, 0, or u, or because ae comes before other double consonants, than st, sc Dis- 
syllables in -1, -n, -r, -d, are often contracted when a vowel follows, as tungel a star, 
g. tungles of a star, instead of tungeles ; heafod a head, g. heafdes of a head. — 
Neuters ending in a single or double consonant as word a word, make the nom. and 
ac. in the s. and pi. all alike ; but dissyllable nouns of the neuter gender ending in 
-el, -ol, -en, -er, diminutives in -incle and neuters ending in -e, make the nom. and 
ac. pi. in -u, as tungel a star, tunglu stars, ricu kingdoms; neuter monosyllables 
having the diphthong £e make the pi. in -u, and also change the vowel, as faet a vat, 
pi. nom. ac. fatu vats.* 

8. The second declension has the genitive case singular ending in -an, as witega, 
an; m. a prophet: wuce, an; f. a week: eare, an; n. an ear. All nouns having the 
nom. ending in -a are masculine, and of this declension ; so also are all feminine 
nouns in -e, -estre, -istre, as sangistre, an; f a songstress; and names of men and 
women in -a, as Attila, Anna, &c. 

m. f. 

s. nom. witeg-a wuc-e 

g. witeg-an wuc-an 

d. witeg-an wuc-an 

ac. witeg-an wuc-an 

/; . r 
pi. nom. ac. witeg-an wuc-an 

g. witeg-ena wuc-ena 

d. witeg-um wuc-um. 

9. Very few neuters have been found of this declension, eare an car, and eage 
an eye, stace a stake, like all neuters, make the ac. s. like the nom., thus, 7iom. ac. eare, 
eage ; in the other cases they are declined exactly like wuce. 

* See example in § 6. 



ADJECTIVES. 



clxxxv 



10. Names of countries and places in -a, are sometimes indeclinable, and some- 
times they take the Latin form. Europa has Europam, Europe, Europe {i. e. 
Europae) in Orosius.* 

11. The third Declension, which only includes feminine nouns, is known by the 
genitive case singular ending in e. All feminine nouns ending in a consonant, or in 
-u, or -o; as wylen or wyln a female slave, gifu a gift, syn sin, are of this declension. 
Nouns in -ung, styrung, e; f. a motion, and a few in -ing ; those in -nis, -nes, -nys, 
as gelicnes, se; ^ a likeness, -utS, geogu^, e; f youth are all feminine, and of this 
declension. 



/. 




/. 


/• 


/• 


S' nom. 


wyln 


gif-u 


syn 


gelicnes 


9- 


wyln-e 


gif-e 


syn-ne 


gelicnes-se 


cl. 


wyln-e 


gif-e 


syn-ne 


gelicnes-se 


ac. 


wyln-e 


gif-e 


syn-ne 


gelicnes-se 


pl.nom.ac. 


wyln-a 


gif-a 


syn-na 


gelicnes-sa 


9- 


wyln-a 


gif-ena 


syn-na 


gelicnes-sa 


d. 


wyln-um 


gif-um 


syn-num 


gelicnes-sum. 



12. Nouns ending in a consonant make the g. pi. in -a, as wylna of female slaves, 
synna of sins ; those in -u or -o have the g.pl. in -ena, as gif-ena of gifts, and some- 
times the ac. in u. Those which end in a single consonant, after a short vowel, 
double the final letter in the g. and all the other cases formed from it, as sin sin, 
synne of sin, gelicnes a likeness, gelicnesse of a likeness. Nouns in -ung sometimes 
make the d. s. in -a. A few words have the ac. like the nom. as tid time, hand a 
hand, miht might, 

Ii regular Nouns. 

13. The few masculine nouns which end in -u, such as, lagu water, medu mead, 
sidu custom, sunu a son, are thus declined: s. nom. ac. sunu a son; g. d. suna; 
pi. nom. ac. suna, g. suna, or sunena; d. sunum. In the pi. they are declined like 
nouns of the second declension — A few names of nations are only used in the plural, 
and end in -e, as Romane the Romans, Angle the Angles, Dene the Danes. They 
are declined, nom ac. Romane, g. Romana, d. Romanum. 

14. A few words ending in -or, and -er denoting relationship, such as bro^or a 
brother, dohter a daughter, whether masculine or feminine, are thus declined s. nom. 
g. BroSor; d. bretSer: pi. nom. g. ac. bro^ra, d. bro^rum. 

15. Some nouns chiefly monosyllables, containing the vowels a, u, ii, and 6, 
change those vowels in d. s. and nom. ac, pi. as man a man, in d. s. is men to or with 
a man, and pU nom. ac. men men: also fot a foot, toiS a tooth, hoc a book, broc 
breeches, gos a goose, turf a turf, burh a castle, cu a cow, lus a louse, miis a mouse, 
modor a mother, dohtor a daughter, make in the d. singular, and in the nom. and ac. 
pi. fet, te^, bee, brec, ges, tyrf, byrh, and byrig, cy, lys, mys, meder, dehter. They are 
mostly regular without change of vowel in the g. s. as mannes, fotes, totSes, boce, 
broce, gose, muse, turfe ; and also in the g. and d. pi. as manna, mannum ; fota, 
fotum ; toiSa, to^um, boca, bocum ; broca, brocum ; gosa, gosum ; miisa, musum ; 
turfa, turfum ; dohtra, dohtrum.f 



Adjectives. 
16. Anglo-Saxon adjectives have variable terminations to correspond with their 



* Mr. Thorpe's translation of Rask, § 65. 

t See Dr. Grimm's Deutsche Grammutik, vol. i. p. 616, (i47 



bb 



ClXXXVl ADJECTIVliS. 

17. There is an indefinite and a definite form of declension. 

18. Si/nopsis of Adjective terminations. 

Indefinite Adjectives. Definite Adjectives. 





m. 


/• 


n. 


m. f. n. 


m. 


/• 


n. 


m.f. n 


s. nam. 


— 


— 


— 


pl..^ 


s. -a 


-e 


-e 


pi. -an 


9- 


-es 


-re 


-es 


-ra 


-an 


-an 


-an 


-ena 


d. 


-um 


-re 


-um 


-um 


-an 


-an 


-an 


-um 


ac. 


-ne 


-e 





-e 


-an 


-an 


-e 


-an. 



Indefinite Adjectives. 

19. God good, Iset late, will serve as examples of declining indefinite adjectives. 
All adjectives of one syllable, except when the vowel is eb before a single consonant ; 
also those ending in -e, participles in -ende, -od, -ed ; dissyllables in -el, &c., as sotS 
true, hal sound, leoht light, niwe new, willende wishing, gehered praised, mycel 
greatf are declined like god good. 





m. 


/. 


n. 






m.f. n. 


s. nom. 


god 


god 


god 


pi. 


nom. 


god-e 


9- 


god-es 


god-re 


god-es 




9- 


god-ra 


d.* 


god-um 


god-re 


god-um 




d. 


god-um 


ac. 


god-ne 


god-e 


god 




ac. 


god-e. 



20. Those that end in -e, drop the e in declining; as niwe new, g. niw-es, niw-re, 
niw-es. Adjectives, ending in a single consonant, after a short vowel, double the 
consonant in declining; but one consonant is omitted before -ne, -re, -ra; as, grim 
severe, g. m. grim-mes,/! grim-re. 

21. Polysyllabic adjectives formed by the derivative terminations, -ful, -ig, -isc, 
-leas, -lie, -sum, &c., make the nom. s.f. and the nom. pi. n. in -u; and monosyllables, 
ending in a single consonant preceded by ae, have the same cases in -u. The latter, 
when ae is followed by a single consonant, and a, e, o, or u, change ae into a; but 
before double consonants ae is unchanged. An example will make the matter 
plain : laet late. 



m. 


/• 


n. 




m.j. 


n. 


m. laet 


lat-u 


laet 


pi. 


lat-e 


lat-u 


g. lat-es 


Iset-re 


lat-es 




laet-ra 


laet-ra 


d.* lat-um 


Iset-re 


lat-um 




lat-um 


lat-um 


ic. laet-ne 


lat-e 


l£et 




lat-e 


lat-u. 



22. Dissyllables, when the inflection begins with a vowel, are often contracted; 
as, halig holy; g. s. m. halg-es, but not when the inflection begins with a consonant ; 
as, g. s. f. halig-re. 

Definite Adjectives. 

23. The definite declension is used when the adjective has before it a definite 
article, or a demonstrative or possessive pronoun. The inflections are exactly the same 
as nouns of the second declension. 

• Professor Rask gives a distinct form for the ablative singular. 
m. f. n. 

ah. god-e, god-re, god-e. 

ah. lat-e, laet-re, lat-e. 



•RONOUNS. 



clxxxvii 



s. nom. se god-a 
g. \>xs god-an 
d* >am god-aii 
ac. Jjone god-an 



seo god-e 
|?a3re god-an 
Jjosre god-an 
Jja god-an 



Y^i god-e 
Jjaes god-an 
\>Qm god-an 
j^aet god-e 



m. f. n. 
pi. \>a. god-an 
Jjara god-ena 
bam god-um 
\>a god-an. 



r 



s. nom. 


se 


lat-a 


9- 


J?aes 


lat-an 


d.* 


Yam. 


lat-an 


ac. 


Jjone 


lat-an 



n. 


m.f. n. 


Jjaet lat-e 


pi. pa lat-an 


>a2S lat-an 


Jjara lat-ena 


Yam lat-an 


l^am lat-um 


l^aet lat-e 


\}a lat-an. 



24. Adjectives of one syllable with cb before a single consonant, in all cases reject 

the e from ce, hence the simple vowel a remains, or, in accordance with the rule in 

§21, when a single consonant is followed by a, e, o, u, ce is changed into a. Laet 

late is declined definitely, thus : 

/. 
seo lat-e 

jjaere lat-an 

)jaere lat-an 

\}a lat-an 

Comparison. 

25. The comparative degree is formed both definitely and indefinitely by annexing 
ra, m. -re, / -re, n. to the positive ; the superlative indefinite by annexing -ost or 
est, and the definite by -esta or -osta, m. -este, f. -este, «., and sometimes by -mest, 

maest. 

Comparative. 
smsel-ra m. smael-re/*. n. 
smaller 

se smsel-ra seo, l^aet smael-re 
the smaller 

swiiS-ra m. swiiS-re/. n. 
stronger 

se swiS-ra seo, jjaet swiiS-re 
the stronger 
laet-ra 
later 
litre 
outer 

26. The irregular comparisons, as god good, betera better, betst best, &c. will be 
found in the Dictionary. 

27. All adj. in the comparative degree, and all definite superlatives, are declined 
like se god-a ; all indefinite superlatives like god good. 



Indefinite. 
Definite. 



Positive. 
Smael 
small 
se smal-a 
the small 
Indefinite, swi^ 
sttong 
Definite, se swiS-a 
the strong 
laet 
late 
liteweard 
outward 



Superlative. 
smal-ost 
smallest 

se smal-esta, seo, \>2si smal-este 
the smallest 
switS-ost 
strongest 

se switS-esta, seo, |?aet swiX-este 
the strongest 
lat-ost or lat-emest 
latest, most late 
ytemest 
outermost. 



28. Personal pronouns. 



Pronowis. 



s. nom. ic 
g. min 
d. me 
ac. mea 



thou 
jjin 



he 

he 

his 

him* 

hine"* 



she 

heo 

hire« 

hire* 

hi 



it 

hitf 
his 
him 
hitf 



wef 
pi. we 
iires 



y4 

ge 

eower 
eow 
eow' 



they 

hi" 

hira' 

him"» 

hi". 



* meh, mec— '' \>eh, |jec— *^ hym— ** hyne— « hyre~f hyt— s user—** usih, usic— » eowih, eowic— 
^ big, heo, hie— > heora— •" heom. 



• Professor Eask gives an express form for the ablative case. 

m. /. n. 

ab. \>y god-an, |paere god-an, py god-an, 

a6. fjy lat-an, Jjaere lat-an, |jy lat-an. 

t 1. Dual of ic. X 2. Dual of pu. 

nom. wit, wyt we two. git, gyt ye two. 

g. uncer of us two. incer of you two. 

d. line to us two. inc to you two. 

ac. unc us ttro. inc" you two. 
a incit. 



clxXXviii PRONOUNS. 

29. Sy\i self is declined like g6d indefinitely and definitely, and is added to personal 
pronouns in the same gender and case, as ic sylf I myself, min sylfes of myself, me syl- 
fum to myself; but the d. of the personal jsrow. is sometimes as in Eng. prefixed to the 
nom. of sylf, me-sylf myself, >e-sylf thyself, him-sylf himself Definitely it signifies 
the same, as, se sylfa man the same man. Sometimes agen own, declined like the in- 
definite of god good, is added. To his agenum to his own, Jn. i. 11. The reciprocal 
sense of his, as his own is also expressed by sin. 

Adjective Pronouns. 

30. Adjective pronouns are only the genitive cases of the personal pronouns taken 
and declined as the indefinite adjective god. They are min my, \>iii thine, uncer our 
two, ure, or user our, incer your two, eower your. 



•m. f. n. 






m. 






/• 






n. 


s. nom. min 




9 


min-es 




9- 


min-re 




9 


min-es% &c. 


Hn 






|jin-es 






Hn-re 






Jjin-es, &c. 


uncer 






unc-res 






unc-re 






unc-res, &c. 


ure" 






ur-es 






lire 






ur-es, &c. 


incer 






inc-res 






inc-re 






inc-res, &c. 


eower 






eow-res 






eow-re 






eow-res, &c. 


* ac. mine or minne ; b nom. 


s. m. /. n. user ; 


g 


. m. 


n. usses, 


/. usse ; 


d. m. n. ussum, /. usse j 


ac. m. userne, /. usse, n. 


user} 


pi. nom. ac. 


m. 


/. 


n. usse, 


user; 


g- 


m. f. n. ussa ; d. m. f. n. 


ussum. 





















Definite or Demonstrative Pronouns. 

31. The article or definite se the, and the definite I^es this, are thus declined. 

m. f. n. m.f.n. m. f. n. m.f.n. 

s. nom. se seo )jaBt pi. j>a, s. pes Pebs )?is pi. |jas*' 

g. |ja3S l^aere I^ass J^ara* J^ises® Jjisse? Jjisese Jsissa' 

d.* l^ama ^asre l^amc J^am* f jjisum' |jisse» l^isum Jiisum' 

ac. jjone" >a past pk J^isne l^as I^is ^as.*" 

■ |>aem— b Jjaene— <^ Jjan, jjon— '^ j^aera— ^ j^isses, Jjesses— ^ j^issum, Jjis— ^ |?issere— h jjaes— » Jjissera. 

32. The indeclinable article j^e is used instead of the various cases of se, seo, Jjaet. 
Se, seo, l^oBt are used relatively like the English that for the relative hw4 who, hwaet 
what. 

Relative Pronouns. 

33. The article or definitive se, seo, p2tt, pe are generally used for the relative who, 
which. The interrogatives hwa 2i;Ao ? YiVfisXwhat? are thus declined. 

m. f. n. 

s. and pi. nom. hwa *. hwast 

g. hwaes hwaes 

<f.c hwam* hwam* 

ac. hwone**. hwaet. 

a hwaem — '» hwaene — ^ ablative hwi. 

• Professor Rask makes a distinct ablative case, and says : " Jjy seems justly to be received 
as a proper ahlativus instrumenti, as it occurs so often in this character, even in the masculine 
gender, as mid Jjy aj^e with that oath, L. In. 53 ; and in the same place, in the dative, on pxm 
ape in that oath."— Mr. Thorpe's Trans. § 147. 

m. f. n. 

ah. Jjy Jjaere ^y- 

t ah. phc Jjisse ^ise. 



NUMERALS — VERBS. clxxxix 

34. Hwylc, hwilc, hwelc which? hwae«er which of the two? are declined indefinitely 
like god good. 

Numerals. 

35. The numerals will be found in the Dictionary; A'n one is declined like god good. 
Twegen m. twa/. n. two, begen m. ba/. n. both, and \>iy three, are declined thus : 

m. 
nom. twegen 
g. twegra* 
d. twam** 
ac. twegen 
a twega — b twaem — *^ t<i. 

36. Yeowerfour makes the g. feowera; Hi Jive, siy. six, seofon seven, are also found 
in the g. fifa, sixa, and seofona. When used absolutely, tyn ten makes in nom. ac. 
tyne, and d. tynum ; also twelf, nom. twelfe ; g. twelfa ; d. twelfum, but they are 
often undeclined. Twentig, and other words in -tig, are thus inflected in all genders, 
nom. ac. -tig ; g. -tigra ; d. -tigum. The ordinal numbers are all declined definitely 
like se goda, as se forma ; seo, J^aet forme the first, except o^er second, which has only 
the indefinite declension like god good. 



f.n. 


m. 


f.n. 


twa«= 


fry 


Keo 


twegra^ 


l^reora 


l^reora 


twam** 


>rym 


l^rym 


twa 


J,ry 


jjreo. 



Verbs. 

37. The conjugation of Anglo-Saxon verbs, like the English, is very simple.* 
According to the inflection, all Anglo-Saxon verbs may be divided into two classes, 
the one more simple and regular, the other more complex and irregular; hence, 
formerly called regular and irregular. 

38. The most simple, regular, and prevailing mode of forming the perfect tense 
and perfect participle is by the addition of a syllable. Hence in Anglo-Saxon, as in 
the modern English, this plan universally prevails when new verbs are formed, or 
when verbs from a foreign language are adopted ; when verbs are formed from adjec- 
tives, nouns, or from the perfect tense of complex verbs with a modified meaning. 
This prevalence in forming the principal parts of such verbs requires that they should 
be placed in the first class, especially since it is the permanent and unalterable in- 
flection of verbs ; for, though there is an increased and continued verging of complex 
verbs to the simple mode of formation, yet the simple or more regular class of verbs 
are always stable, and never assume the complex form. 

39. Tker simple and more regular class of verbs is distinguished by having the 
perfect tense of two or more syllables, and the termination in -ode, -ede, -de, or -te, 
while the perfect participle ends in -od, -ed, -d, or -t ; as, luf-ian to love; p. luf-ode ; jc>p. 
luf-od ; segel-ian to sail; p. segel-ede, or segel-ode ; pp. gesegel-ed, gesegel-od ; baern-an 
to burn; p. bagrn-de; pp. baern-ed; met-an to meet; p. met-te; pp. met, or gemet. 

40. The more complex and irregular verbs are known by having the perfect tense 
a monosyllable, ending in the last consonant coming before the infinitive -an, with 
a change of the vowel, and the perfect participle ending in -en, or -n ; as, far-an to 
go; p. for; pp. far-en; sing-an to sing ; p. sang; pp. gesung-en. 

• What is generally termed the passive voice has no existence in A.-S. any more than in 
modern English. The Anglo-Saxons wrote, he is lufod he is loved. Here he is, is the ind. 
indef. of the neut. verb wesan, and lufod loved, is the pp. of the verb lufian to love. In parsing, 
every word should be considered a distinct part of speech: " to a king," is not called a dative 
case in English, as regi in Latin, because the English phrase is not formed by inflection, but 
by the auxiliary words "to a." If auxiliaries do not form cases in English nouns, why should 
they be allowed to form various tenses, and a passive voice either in the English, or in its 
parent the Saxon ? Thus, Ic maeg beon lufod / may be loved, instead of being called the 
potential mood, pass, maeg is more rationally considered a verb in the indie, mood, indef. teme, 
1st sing, beon, the neut. verb in the infin. mood, after the verb maeg: lufod is the perf. part, of 
the verb lufian. 



cxc 



VRRBS. 



41. There are four moods — the indicative, imperative, subjunctive, and infinitive, 
with a sort of second infinitive, and two participles. The infinitive does not admit of 
a preposition before it, but the second infinitive is always preceded by to, as to etanne 
to eat; it seems to be the dative case of the infin. etan to eat, which is a sort of a noun. 
With the neuter verb it has a passive signification, or seems to denote a duty. Hit is 
to witanne it is to be known, it must or ought to be known. Elf. Pref. Gen. 

4t2. There are two tenses — the indefinite and perfect. The indefinite* tense may 
refer either to the present period or to a future, and thus comprehend what are 
generally termed the present and future tenses. Ic write 1 write now, or I write 
to-morrow. 

43. The conjugation of a regular verb, or a verb of the simple class, § 39. 



infinitive, 
baern-an to burn, 
luf-ian to love. 



THE PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
perfect. 
baern-de burned, 
luf-ode loved. 



perfect participle. 
baern-ed burned. 
luf-od loved. 



They are thus conjugated : 



INDICATIVE. 



indefinite, 
door shall burn. 
s. ic baern-e 
Jju baern-st 
he* baern-* 
we ba?rn-aS'' 
ge baern-a^5 
hi baern-a^'* 



pi 



perfect. 
burned or have burned. 
baern-de 
baem-dest 
bagrn-de 
baern-don 
bsern-don 
baern-don 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 



indefinite, 
if I, etc. burn. 
baern-e 
baern-e 
baern-e 
baern-on«* 
baern-ond 
baern-on** 



perfect. 
if I, etc. have burned. 
baern-de 
bagrn-de 
bffirn-de 
baern-don 
basrn-don 
basrn-don. 



IMPERATIVE. 

5. baern l^u burn thou, 
pi. h2£xn-2L^^^Qburnye, 



INFINITIVE. 

baern-an to burn, 
to baern-enneto^wrw, 



PARTICIPLES. 

indef P^f 

baern- en de^Mrnm^, baern-ed fiwrnec^. 



INDICATIVE.. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


indefinite. 


perfect. 


indefinite. 


perfect. 


do or shall love. 


loved or have loved. 


if I, etc. love. 


if I, etc. have loved. 


s. ic luf-ige 


luf-ode 


luf-ige 


luf-ode 


]>\x luf-ast 


luf-odest 


luf-ige 


luf-ode 


hea'luf-a« 


luf-ode 


luf-ige 


luf-ode 


pi. we luf-iaS'' 


luf-odonc 


luf-iond 


luf-odonc 


ge luf-iatS*" 


luf-odonc 


luf-iond 


luf-odon* 


hi luf-iaS" 


luf-odon*= 


luf-iond 


luf-odon*. 



IMPERATIVE. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLES. 

lufa >u love thou, luf-ian or -igean to love, indef. perf. 

luf-ia^'' ge loveye, to luf-ienne or -igenne to love, luf-ieude loving, luf-od loved. 

" Also heo she, hit it • »> baern-e and lufige are used when the pronoun follows the verb, as 
in asking a question, or commanding : but when the pronoun is omitted, or it precedes the 
verb -a^ is used: ^also, -edon : ^ also, -an. 



• The future form is the same as the present, for example : " Hi do<5 eow of gesomnungum, 
ac seo tid cym<5 Jjset aelc \>e eow ofslyhS, wen^ jsaet he jjenige Gode they shall put you from 
the synagogue : and the time shall come that every one who slayeth you, will think that he serveth 
God." St. John xvi. 2. 

The words Ic wille, sceal, &c. generally signify voZe7£on, obligation, and injunction, rather than 
the property nf time. Sometimes, however, they have some appearance of denoting time. 



VKKBS. CXCl 



Remarks on the formation of Moods, Tenses, and Persons. 

44. The imperative mood is formed from the infinitive by rejecting the infinitive 
termination -an, as, baern-an to burn, baern burn. If the consonant be double, after 
the rejection of the infin. an, one consonant is rejected, and e added; as, syll-an to give, 
sell; imper. syle give, sell. Verbs in -ian, make the imper. in -a, as luf-ian to love, 
luf-a love. 

45. The p. tense is formed by changing the infinitive -an, or -ian, into -ode, -ede, 
or -de ; and the pp. by changing -an, or -ian, into -od, or -ed : as luf-ian to love ; 
p. luf-ode ; pp. luf-od : segl-ian to sail ; p. segl-ede ; pp. segl-ed. 

46. Verbs having the consonants d, f, g, I, m, n, r, s, w, and ^, before the in- 
finitive termination, often contract the p. tense, and have only -de added instead of 
-ede or -ode; as, betyn-an to shut, betyn-de I shut or have shut; alys-an to redeem, 
alys-de I redeemed. 

47. Verbs which end in -dan or -tan with a consonant preceding, do not take an 
additional f/ or t in the past tense; as, send-an to send, send-e I sent; ahred-dan to libe- 
rate, ahred-de I liberated; pliht-an to plight or pledge; pliht-e I plighted or pledged ; 
set-tan to set, set-te I set. Those with c or cc change the c or cc into h before t; as, 
rec-can to regard; p. reh-te regarded. 

48. When verbs have the letters t, p, c, h, x, and s, after another consonant before 
the infinitive -an, they often not only reject the vowel before d in the jo. andjojo., but 
change d into t; as from dypp-an to dip, would be regularly formed dypp-ede, dypp-ed 
dipped, but they are contracted into dypde, dypte, dyppd, dyppt, and dypt dipped. 

49. Formation of persons. The first person singular is formed from the infinitive 
by changing -an, &c. into -e, and the second into -st, -ast, or -est, and the third 
into -S, -atS, -eS. 

50. In the third person singular, the aspirate ^ is changed into the soft t, when the 
infinitive ends in -dan, or -san ; as, fed-an to feed, fet he feedeth or will feed ; raes- 
an to rush, reest he rusheth: verbs in -j^an or -tan receive no additional ^ ; as, cyS-an 
to tell, he cyS he makes known ; hat-an to name, to call, hset he calls. Verbs in -dan 
have the '2nd s. in -tst ; as, send-an to send, J^u sentst thou sendest, — yet sendest is 
sometimes found. 

51. When the infinitive ends in -an with a vowel before it, the plural persons end 
in -iaJS ; as, hingr-ian to hunger, hingr-ia<S we, ye, they hunger ; wyr-ian to curse, wyr-iaS 
we, ye, they curse ; but if a consonant go before -an, then they end in -a^ ; as, J^yrst-an 
to thirst, |?yrsta^ we, ye, they thirst. 

52. The plural persons often end in the same manner as the first person singular, 
especially when the Saxon pronoun is placed after the verb : as, hwaet ete we what 
shall we eat^ (See note b to § 43.) 

53. If there be a double consonant in the verb, one is always rejected in forming 
the persons when another follows : as, spillan to spill, spilst spillest, spilS spilleth, 
spilde spilled. Where it would be too harsh to add st and ^ to the bare root, an e is 
inserted, but only in the indefinite tense ; as, nemn-an to name, nemn-est namest, 
nemn-eS nameth: the perfect is regularly formed, nem-de named ; and so is the perfect 
participle, nemn-ed named. 

54. On all occasions when e follows i, a ^ is inserted between them ; hence, lufie 
I love, becomes lufige Hove; and lufiende loving, becomes lufigende /omw^ ; g is also 
often found before an a or ea; as, sceawigan or sceawigean to shew, which are the same 
as sceawian to shew. 

55. Complex verbs. Those verbs which become monosyllables after casting away the • 
infinitive termination, are called complex, because the perf tense is formed by various 



CXCll VERBS. 

or complex modifications or changes of the radical vowel. Though there are only 
about 188 complex radical verbs, they are divided into many classes, and can hardly 
be known without giving a complete list. It is not deemed necessary to give them 
here, as they are all inserted in the Dictionary. For Englishmen, such a list is not 
absolutely required, as almost all the A.-S. verbs which have been usually called irre- 
gular form their p. and pp. as in English, thus ete, set, eten eat, ate, eaten; gifan, 
geaf, gifen give, gave, given ; writan, wrat, writen write, wrote, written. The following 
rules wDl, however, be useful in forming the p. and pp. of these verbs. 

56. Verbs which become monosyllables after casting away the infinitive termination 
when the remaining vowel is a, often change it into o, and occasionally into eo; and 
ea generally into eo, in the past tense, while the vowel in the pp. remains unchanged ; 
as injin. stand-an to stand, p. stod stood; pp. gestanden stood; injin. beat-an to beat; 
p. beot beat ; pp. beaten beaten. 

57. Verbs which have e or eo before the letters //, If, Ig, It, rp, rf, rg, and the like, 
have ea — and in a few cases cb — in the past tense, and o in the pp., as delft-an to dig ; 
p. dealf dug ; pp. dolfen dug. 

58. Verbs which have i before the double consonants rn, nn, ng, nc, nd, mb, mp, 
&c. often change the i into a in the past tense, and into u in the pp. ; as, sing-an to 
sing ; p. sang sang ; pp. sungen sung. Those which have i before a single consonant 
also changed the i into a in the perfect tense; the pp. is like the infinitive, or in u; 
as, bit-an to bite; p bat bit; pp. biten bitten; nim-an to take ; p. nam took; pp nu- 
men taken. 

59. Verbs, with u or eo in the infinitive, have the p. in ea and the pp. in o ; as, 
cluf-an to cleave; p. cleai clove ; pp. clofen ; creop-an to creep; p. creap crept; pp. 
cropen crept. 

60. Formation of persons in complex verbs. The personal terminations are 
most commonly like those in the simple or more regular verbs; the first vowel 
in the verb, however, is often changed in the second and third persons of the sin- 
gular in the indefinite tense ; but the plural persons retain the vowel of the first 
person singular : thus a is generally changed to <b, and sometimes to e or y ; — 
c, ea, and u often become i/, and sometimes i: — 6 is converted into e: — u or eo be- 
comes y. The other vowels i and y are not changed. From bac-an to bake, we have 
Ic bace I bake, pu basest thou bakest, he baec<S he baketh : pi. we, ge, hi bacaS we, ye, 
they bake. From stand-an to stand, we also sometimes find Ic stande I stand, jju 
stenst thou standest, he stent he standeth ; pi. we, ge, hi standa^ we, ye, they stand. 
From et-an to eat, we have Ic ete I eat, )ju ytst thou eatest, he yt he eateth : we, ge, 
hi eta^ we, ye, they eat. From sce6t-an to shoot, are formed Ic sceote I shoot, \)U 
scytst thou shootest, he scyt he shooteth ; pi. we, ge, hi sceota^ we, ye, they shoot. 

61. The same observations which were made on the formation of the third person 
of simple verbs ending in -dan, -san, -tan, &c, (see § 50), will be applicable here : as, 
Ic ride I ride, he rit or ride^ he rides ; Ic cwe^e I say, J^u cwyst thou say est, he cwy^ 
he saith ; Ic cebse I choose, \>u cyst thou choosest, he cyst he chooses ; and in et-an to 
eat, as in § 60. 

62. The persons in the perfect tense are often formed like regular verbs ; but the 
second person singular more frequently ends in e : as, from bacan to bake, we have 
the past tense hoc, boce; thusj9. s. Ic hoc I baked, f^uboce thou bnkedst, he, &c. hoc 
he, Sfc. baked; pi. we, ge, hi bocon we, ye, they baked. 

63. Verbs which have w or o for the first vowel in the perfect participle, mostly 
have u in the second person singular, and all the plural persons of the p. tense ; as in 
simple verbs, the third person singular is like the first : thusjt?. s. Ic sang I sfing, \>n 
sunge thou sangest, he or heo sang he or she sung; pi. we, ge, hi sungon we, ye, they 
sang. 



VERBS. 



XClll 



64. Verbs, having a for the first vowel of the p. and i for the/Tp. make the second 
person s. and all the persons in the pi. of the p. in i ; as, arisan to arise ; p. ic, he, 
aras /, he arose, \>Vi arise thou arosest ; we, ge, hi arison ue, ye, they arose — writan to 
write; p. ic, he wr^t J, he lurote; )ju write thou wrotest ; we, ge, hi writon we, ye, 
they wrote. 

65. Verbs of one syllable, terminating in a vowel, have an h annexed to them ; 
and those in g. generally change the g into h in all parts of the verb, as well as in the 
imperative mood; as J^wean to wash; imp. \>weaJa. wash ; p. \)Vio]\ washed. Stigan 
to rise ; p. stah rose. 

The conjugation of complex, or more irregular verbs. 
writan to write ; p. wrat wrote; pp. writen written. 
standan to stand; p. stod stood; pp. gestanden stood. 



INDICATIVE. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


indefinite. 


perfect. 


indefinite. 


perfect. 


I, etc. do or shall write. 


I, etc. wrote. 


if I, etc. write. 


if I, etc. wrote. 


s. ic writ-e 


wrat 


writ-e 


writ-e 


]7U writ-st 


writ-e 


writ-e 


writ-e 


he«= writ 


wrat 


writ-e 


writ-e 


pi. we writ-a^* 


writ-on 


writ-on"^ 


writ-on'^ 


ge writ-a^a 


wrlt-on 


writ-on<* 


writ-on^ 


hi writ.a«* 


writ-on 


writ-on^ 


writ-on"*. 


IMPERATIVE. 


INFINITIVE. 


PARTICIPLES. 


writ \>\x write thou. 


writ-an to write 


indef. writ-ende writing. 


writ-e^ ge write ye. 


to writ-anne 


pp. writ- 


-en tvritten. 


INDICATIVE. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


indefinite. 


perfect. 


indefinite. 


perfect. 


etc. do or shall stand. 


I, etc. stood. 


if I, etc. stand. 


if I, etc. stood. 


s. ic stand-e 


stod 


stand-e 


stod-e 


)>\i stenst^ 


stod-e 


stand-e 


stod-e 


he'^ stent** 


stod 


stand-e 


stod-e 


pi. we stand-atS* 


stod-on 


stand-on'^ 


stod-on** 


ge stand-atS"* 


stod-on 


stand-on*^ 


st6d-on«* 


hi stand-a<5=^ 


stod-on 


stand-on<^ 


stod.on'*. 



IMPERATIVE. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLES. 

stand l^u stand thou. stand-an to stand. indef. stand-ende standing. 

stand-e® ge stand ye. to stand-anne. pp. ge-stand-en stood. 

* writ-e and stand-e are used when a pronoun follows the verb, see § 43, note b. — '' Also 
pa stand-est or Jju stand-st; he stand-e^. — "^ Also heo she, hit it, as, he, heo, hit stent he, she, 
or it stands. — ^ Also, -en. — ^ When the pronoun is omitted, the termination is -a^, as writ-atS 
write, stand-a<S stand. See § 43, note b. 

66. The auxiliary verbs wesan or beon to be, habban to have,* magan to be able, 
sceal shall,] wyllan to zvill, wish. See. need not be conjugated here, as all these vdll be 
found in the Dictionary. 

* Habban is used with a pp. to express what is called in Latin the preterperfect tense ; as, 
ic haebbe geset / have set or placed, posui, for ic sette I placed or have placed. 

t Ic sceal faestan / shall fast; jejunabo: here ic sceal is a verb of the first person *. indef. 
and faestan is in the inf. governed by sceal. See § 37, note (*), and § 42, note (*). 

C C 



AN ABSTRACT 



PROFESSOR RASK'S ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR. 



1. Nouns are divided into two orders. I. The Simple order. II. The Complex 
order. 

2. I. The Simple order of nouns contains only words ending in an essential vowel; 
viz. -a in the m. as steorra a star; and -e in the/, and n. as tunge a tongue, and 
eage an eye. 







SINGULAR. 






PLURAL. 






n. 


m. 


/• 


n. 


m. 


/. 


nom. 


eag-e 


steorr-a 


tung-e 


eag-an 


steorr-an 


tung-an 


ac. 


eag-e 


steorr-an 


tung-an 


eag-an 


steorr-an 


tung-an 


ab.d. 


eag-an 


steorr-an 


tung-an 


eag-um 


steorr-um 


tung-um 


9' 


eag-an 


steorr-an 


tung-an 


eag-ena 


steorr-ena 


tung-ena. 



3. II. The Complex order comprehends all words ending in a consonant, and some 
also in an unessential, -e, (for i) or u. 

4. 2nd Declension, \st class, most neuters ending in a consonant ; as, leaf a leaf, 
and word a word. 

s. nom. ac. leaf word pi. leaf word 

ah. d. leaf-e word-e leaf-um word-um 

g. leaf-es word-es leaf-a word-a. 

5. 2nrf Declension, 2nd class, nearly all masculines not ending in -a or u ; as, smi^ 
a smith, ende an end, and daeg a day. 

s. nom. ac. smiis end-e daeg pi. smiS-as end-as dag-as 

ab. d. smi^-e end-e daeg-e smi*-um end-um dag-um 

g. smi^-es end-es daeg-es smi<5-a end-a dag-a. 

6. 2nd Declension. 3rd class, all feminines ending in a consonant ; as, wylen a 
female slave, and sprse'c a speech. 

s. nom. wylen sprae'c pi. wyln-a sprae'c-a 

ac. wyln-e sprae'c-e wyln-a sprae'c-a 

ab. d. wyln-e sprae'c-e wyln-um sprag'c-um 

g. wyln-e sprae'c-e wyln-a sprae'c-a. 



ABSTRACT OF RASK. 



XCV 



7. Srd Declension, 1 st class, all neuters in -e (for i) ; as, treow a tree, rice a king- 
dom, and faet a vessel. 

s. nom. ac. treow ric-e faet pi. treow-u ric-u fat-u 

ab. d. treow-e ric-e faet-e treow-um ric-um fat-um 

g. treow-es ric-es faet-es treow-a ric-a fat-a. 

8. ^rd Declension, 2nd class, all masculines in -u, which form their ^/. in -a; also 
words for kindred in -or ; as, sunu a son, brotSor a brothe?; man a man. 

s. nom. ac. sun-u br68-or(er) man pi. sun-a br6tSr-a(u) menn 
ab. d. sun-a bre^-er men sun-um bro^r-um man-num 

g. sun-a br6tS-or(er) man-nes sun-ena brotSr-a man-na. 

9. 3rd Declension, 3rd class, all feminines in -u or -o ; as, gifu a gift, and denu 
a den. 

s. nom. gif-u den-u pi. gif-a den-a 

ac. gLf-e(u) den-e(u) gif-a den-a 

ab. d. gif-e den-e gif-um den-um 

g. gif-e den-e gif-ena den-ena. 

10. For the declension of adjectives, see § 18 — 27; pronouns, § 28 — 34 ; and nume- 
rals, § 35 and 36. 

11. Verbs are divided into I. the Simple, and II. the Complex order. 

12. I. The Simple order of verbs contains one conjugation and three classes. In this 
order the p. is more than one syllable, and ends in -de or -te ; and the pp. in -d or -t. 

1st conjugation. 

pp. 
geluf-od 
bsern-ed 
seald.. 



ciass. inf. 


indf. 


P- 


1. luf-ian to love 


luf-ige luf-ode 


2. baern-an to burn 


baern-e bsern-de 


3. syll-an to give 


syU-e seald-de 


1st conjugation, indicative 


MOOD. 


pres. s. ic lufige 


baerne 


sylle 


]p\i lufast 


baernst 


sylst 


he lufa^ 


bffirncS 


sylts 


pi. we, ge, hi lufiacS 


baerna* 


syllaS 


lufige 


baerne 


sylle 


p. s.ic lufode 


ba?rnde 


sealde 


\>u lufodest 


baerndest 


sealdest 


he lufode 


b^rnde 


sealde 


pi. we, ge, hi lufodon(edon) baerndon 


sealdon 


subjunctive mood. 




pres. s. ic, \)U, he lufige 


baerne 


sylle 


we, ge, hi lufion(j 


m) baernon(an) 


syllon 


p. s. ic, \}u, he lufode 


basrnde 


sealde 


pi. we,ge, hilufodon(edon) baerndon 


sealdon 


imperative mood. 




s. lufa \)\i 


bgern 


syle 


pi. lutia^ ge 


baerna<S 


syllaS 


lufige ge 


basrne 


sylle 



XCVl 



ABSTRACT OF RASK. 



pres. lufian 
gerund. (t6)lufigenne 

act. lufigende 
pp. (ge)liifod 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

baernan 
baernenne 

PARTICIPLES. 

baernende 
bserned 



syllan 
syllanne (enne) 



syllende 
seald. 



13. \st Class.* As lufian are also conjugated all verbs in -ian ; as, j^eowian, pres. 
Jjeowige, p. }jeowode, pp. ge^eowod to serve, clypian to call, h§.lgian to consecrate, 
hallow, macian to make, eardian to dwell, la<Sian to invite, fulian to rot, fuUian to bap- 
tize, wunian to dwell, getimbrian to build, neosian to spy, bletsian to bless, ricsian to 
govern, gitsian to desire, syngian to sin, myngian to admonish, gehyrsumian to obey. 

14. '2nd Class. As basrnan are inflected all verbs derived from nouns, adjectives, 
and other verbs; as, belae'wan, pres. belae'we, p. belas'wde, pp. belae'we^to betray, 
adras'fan to expel, w^regan to accuse, lae'ran to instruct, todae'lan to divide, deman to deemy 
wenan to imagine, ween, fyllan to fell, drencan, drencean to give to drink, to drench, 
bse'tan to bridle, weccan to awaken, aly^san to redeem, amyrran to waste, metan to meet, 
dyppan to dip, nemnan to name, gretan to greet, scrydan to clothe, raesan to rush, gau 
or gangan to go. 

15. 3rc? Class, includes those verbs not belonging to the other two classes, and 
yet having the p. of more than one syllable ; as, tellan, pres. ic telle, imp. tele \>\i, 
p. tealde, pp. geteald, stellan to leap, cwellan to kill, gedwellan to mislead, J^eccan to 
thatch, reccan to care about, secgan to say, lecgan to lay, bycgan to buy, secan to seek, 
recan to care for, wyrcan to work, bringan to bring, l^encan to think, Hncan to seem, 
habban to have, wUlan to will. 

16. Anomolous verbs — Ic, he can (l^u cunne, canst) j!?Z. cunnon, inf. cunnan, cucSe, 
cu^on, pp. cuS know — An, ic an I grant (fju unne) jf?/. unnon, inf. unnan, uSe, ucSon 
give, bestow. Also ic gean, we geunnon, geunnan, geuXe, pp. geunnen. — Geman, 
Jn. 16, 21, (|ju gemanst, Bt. p. 118), pi. gemunon, gemunan, gemunde, gemundon 
remember. — Sceal Qpu scealt), sculon, (sceolon), pres. sub. scyle, imp. sceolde, sceol- 
don shall, should. — Dear Qpu dea,rst, Beo. 42), durron, sub. durre, dorste, dorston 

daj-e pearf Oearft, Bt. p. 8, or J?urfe, Elf gr. p. 5), j^urfon, subj. \>mie, j^orfte, 

)jorfton need. Also bej'earf, bej^urfon, &c Deah, dugon, inf. dugan, dohte, Bt. 

p. 158, Beo. 42, jju dohtest, Dew^. 15, 11, dohton, J?^.p.40, (not duhte) help, be good 

for {Icel. dugi). — Mseg (Jju miht, Jn. 13, 36), magon (not magon), sub. maege (mage), 

mihte, mihton or meahte, meahton may, might Ah (j^u age), agon, sub. age, agan, 

ahte, ahton possess, own. Also the negative nah, Elf gr. 2, he nah, Jn. 10, 12, pi. 
nagon, and sub. nage, Wilk. L. p. 160, nahte, nkhtest, nahton I do not possess — Wat, 
Qpu Wast), witon, wite, witan, wiste, wiston supine, witod know. Likewise the negative 

nat (Jju nast), nyton, nyte, nytan, nyste, nystest or nestest, Bt. 5, 3, nyston Mot 

(>u most) moton, mote, moste, moston must. 

17. II. Complex order makes the p. a monosyllable with a change of vowel, and 
the pp. in -en, or -n; as, 

2nd conjugation. 3rd conjugation. 

class, inf. pres. p. pp. class, inf. pres. p. pp. 

1. et-an ete aet eten to eat. 1. byrn-an byrne barn burnen ^o ^>Mrn. 

2. laet-an laete let Igeten to let. 2. writ-an write wrat writen to write. 

3. far-an fare for faren ^o^ro. 3. sceot-an sceote sceat scoten to shoot. 



* This abstract is taken from the English Translation of Mr. Thorpe, Svo. Copenhageni 
1830. 



ABSTRACT OF RASK. 



XCVll 



2nd conjugation, indicative mood. 



SUBJUNCTIVE mood. 



t 



pres.sAc ete lae'te 


fare 


p. s. ic, pu, 


he 


se'te lete 


fore 


J'U ytst lae'tst 


faerst 


pi. we, ge, 


hi 


ae'ton leton 


foron 


he yt lae't 


fa3r« 




IMPERATIVE MOOD. 




pi. we, ge, hi eta« lae't-a« 


fara« 


s. et bu 




lae't 


far 


or ete or la'te 03 


•fare 


pi. eta<S ge 




lae'tats 


faraS 


p. s. ic ae't let 


for 


or ete ge 




or lae'te or fare 


]>M ae'te lete 


fore 




INFINITIVE MOOD. 




he ae't let 


for 


pres. etan 




lae'tan 


faran 


pL we, ge, hi aeton leton 


foron 


gerund, etanne 




lae'tanne 


faranne 


SUBJUNCTIVE mood. 








PARTICIPLES. 




pres.s. ic, Jju, he ete lae'te 


fare 


act. etende 




las'tende 


farende 


pi. we, ge, hi eton lae'ton 


faron 


pp. eten 




lae'ten 


faren. 



18. 1st Class, conjugated like etan, contains those verbs which have a long -e or 
-i before a single characteristic ; as, inf. sprecan, pres. ic sprece, he spriccS, p. ic spraec, 
we sprse'cou, pp. gesprecen to speak, wrecan to revenge, tredan to tread, fretan to fret, 
metan to measure, genesan to recover, lesan to gather, biddan to hid, beg,' sittan to sit, 
licgan to lie, ongitan to understand, gifan to give, swefan to sleep, beran to bear, teran 
to tear, sceran to shear, acwelan to perish, forhelan to conceal, stelan to steal, niman 
to take — Irregulars, geseon to see, cwe<San to say, wesan to be, beon to be ; for their 
formation, see the Dictionary. 

19. 2nd Class, includes verbs which have short e and short eo inp. conjugated like 
laetan ; as, inf. hatan, pres. he has't, p. ic het, we heton, pp. haten to command, healdan, 
pres. he hylt, healt, p. ic heold, we heoldon, pp. healden, ondrae'dan to dread, slapan 
to sleep ; hon, p. heng, pp. hangen to hang; onfon to receive, fealdan to fold, wealdan 
to govern, feallan to fall, weallan to boil, weaxan to grow, scekdan to divide, gesceatan, 
to fall to, beatan to beat, blotan to sacrifice, hleapan to leap, swapan to sweep, wepan 
to weep, blawan to blow, cnawan to know, era wan to crow, sawan to sow, heawan to 
hew, flowan to flow, spowan to succeed, growan to grow, rowan to row. 

20. 3rc? Class, includes verbs which form the perfect in o; as, wacan, pres. he 
waec<S ; p. ic woe, we wocon ; pp. wacen to arise, awaken, bacan to bake, wi<Ssacan to 
deny, scacan to shake, dragan to draw, gnagan to gnaw, hlihhan to laugh, slean to slay, 
J'wean to wash, lean to blame, wadan to wade, hladan to load, grafan to dig, scafan to 
shave, hebban to lift, steppan to step, scyppan to create, wacsan to wash, standan to 
stand, galan to enchant, spanan to allure, cuman to come. 



3rd CONJUGATION, INDICATIVE MOOD. 

pr.s. ic byrne write sceote p. s. 

\>u byrnst writst scytst pi. 

he byrnS writ scyt 

pi. we, ge, hi byrna^ writa^ sceotaiS s. 

or byrne or write or sceote pi. 

p. s. ic barn wrat sceat or 

]pu burne write scute 

he barn wrat sceat pres. 

pi. we,ge,hiburnon writon scuton gerund. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

pr.s. ic, Jju, he byrne write sceote act. 

/?/. we, ge, hi byrnon writon sceoton pp. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

ic, |7U, he burne write scute 

we,ge,hiburnon writon scuton 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

byrn ]pu writ j'u sceot )ju 

byrna<s ge writaS ge sceota^ ge 

byrne ge or write ge or sceote ge 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

byrnan writan sceotan 

byrnanne writanne sceotanne 

PARTICIPLES. 

byrnende writende sceotende 

burnen writen scoten. 



21. 1st Class, comprises those verbs which have a short i (y) before rw, nn, ng, nr, 
nd, mb, mp; a short a (o) in they?, and u in the pp.; also those with a short e or eo 



■^ 



XCVlll ABSTRACT OF RASK. 



before //, Ig, It, rp, rf, rg; in thejt?, ea (ce) short, and o in thej^p.; as, spinnan, ;9rc«. 
he spin^ ; p. ic span, we spunnon ; pp. spunnen ; yrnan to run, blinnan to ceascy 
onginnan to begin, winnan to war, frinan or fregnan to ask, singan to sing, swingan to 
scourge, beat, springan to spring, ofstingan to sting, stab, wringan to ivring, J?ringan 
to throng, drincan to drink, besincan to sink, forscrincan to shrink, wither, stincan to 
stink, swincan to toil, bindan to bind, findan to find, grindan to grind, swindan to vanish, 
windan to wind, swimman to swim, climban to climb, gelimpan to happen, swellan to 
swell, belgan to be wroth, swelgan to swallow, meltan to melt, sweltan to die, geldan 
to pay, helpan to help, gelpan to boast, delfau to delve, murnan to mourn, spurnan to 
spurn, gesweorcan deficire, beorgan to save, weorpan to throw, ceorfan to cut, gedeor- 
fan to suffer, steorfan to die, hweorfan to return, berstan to burst, J^erscan to thresh, 
bredan to braid, bregdan to braid, feohtan to fight. 

22. 2nd Class, includes all verbs with a hard i in the pres. and a in the p. ; as, 
dwinan, pres. he dwin^ ; p. ic dwan, we dwinon ; pp. dwinen to pine, fade, hrinan to 
touch, sc'man to shine, arisan to arise, blican to shine, beswican to seduce, hnigan 
to sink, bow, migan mingere, sigan to fall, stigan to ascend, wrigan to cover., bitan to 
bite, flitan to contend, slitan to tear, slit, smitan to smite, gewitan to depart, wlitan to 
look, bidan to stay, bide, glidan to glide, gnidan to rub, aslidan to slide, gripan to seize, 
toslipan to dissolve, belifan to remain, slifan to split, spiwan to spit, vomit. 

23. 3rJ Class, bears a near resemblance to the preceding; as, briican, pres. he 
bryccS ; p. ic breac, we brucon ; pp. brocen to use, belucan to shut up, siican to suck, reocan 
to reek, smeocan to smoke, gebugan to bow, dreogan to do, leogan to lie, fleogan, fleon to 
fiy,fiee, teogan, teon to draw, wreon to cover, ge)jeon to thrive, lutan to bow, incline, 
geotan to pour, fleotan to float, hleotan to obtain; sortiri, neotan to enjoy, )?e6tan to 
howl, toslupan to dissolve, creopan to creep, clufan to cleave, gedufan to dive, scufan 
to shove, ceowan to chew, hreowan to rue. 



AN ABSTRACT 



PROF. GRIMM'S* DECLENSIONS AND CONJUGATIONS, 



1. 1st Decl fisc a 


fish 


; 2nd 1 


Uh Decl lio^e people 






\st. fisc 


pi 


fisc-as 


fisc-es 




fisc-a 


fisc-e 




fisc-um 


fisc 




fisc-as 


^rd. sun-u 




sun-a 


sun-a 




sun-a 


sun-a 




sun-um 


sun-u 




sun-a 



Strong Masculine Nouns. 

2nd Decl hirde a shepherd; Srd Decl sunu a son 



2nd. 


hird-e 


pi. 


hird-as 




hird-es 




hird-a 




hird-e 




hird-um 




hird-e 




hird-as 


4th 






leod-e 
leod-a 








leod-um 








leod-e. 



Strong Feminine Nouns. 

2. 1st Decl gifu a gift; 2nd Decl ascSelo nobility ; 4th Decl daed a deed. 

Ist. gif-u pi gif-a 2nd. se^el-o 4th. dsed pi daed-a 

gif-e gif-ena ae^el-o daed-e daed-a 

gif-e gif-um aeSel-o daed-e daed-um 

gif-e gif-a ae^el-o daed-e daed-a. 

Strong Neuter Nouns. 

3. \st Decl word a word, faet a vat; 2nd Decl. rice a kingdom. 
\st. word pi word faet pi fat-u 



word-es 


word-a faet-es 


fat-a 


word-e 


word-um faet-e 


fat-um 


word 


word faet 


fat-u 



ric-e 


pi 


ric-u 


ric-es 




ric-a 


ric-e 




ric-um 


ric-e 




ric-u. 



* This abstract is taken from the Gbttingen edition of 1822, vol. I. p. 638—647 : 732—735 
895—910. 



ABSTRACT OF GRIMM. 

Weak Nouns. 
4. A weak masculine, hana a cock; a weak feminine, tunge a tongue; a weak neuter, 



eare an ear. 












m. han-a 


pi. han-an 


f. tung-e 


pi. tung-an 


n. ear-e 


pi. ear-an 


han-an 


han-ena 


tung-an 


tung-ena 


ear-an 


ear-ena 


han-an 


han-um 


tung-an 


tung-um 


ear-an 


ear-um 


han-an 


han-an 


tung-an 


tung-an 


ear-e 


ear-an. 



m. 
s. blind 



Adjectives. 
'. Declension of strong adjectives. 

/. n. m. f. n. 

blind(u) blind s. hwset hwat-u hwaet 

blind-re blind-es hwat-es hwaet-re hwat-es 

blind-re blind-um hwat-um hwagt-re hwat-um 

blind-e blind hwaet-ne hwat-e hwaet 

blind-e blind-u pi. hwat-e hwat-e hwat-u 

blind-ra blind-ra hwaet-ra hwaet-ra hwaet-ra 

blind-um blind-um hwat-um hwat-um hwat-um 

bUnd-e blind-u hwat-e hwat-e hwat-u. 



bhnd-es 

blind-um 

blind-ne 



pi. blind-e 
blind-ra 
blind-um 
blind-e 



6. Weak adjectives are declined exactly like the weak nouns, see § 4 in this page, 
and Definite Adjectives in § 23 and 24 of the Essentials. 

7. The pronouns and articles, see Essentials, § 28 — 31. 



Verbs. 



8. In strong verbs, there are twelve conjugations;* viz. 





' 


P- 


p. pi. 


pp. 


1. 


Fealle cado 


feol 


feoUon 


feallen 


2. 


Swape verro 


sweop 


sweopon 


swapen 


3. 


Hleape salio 


hleop 


hleopon 


hleapen 


4. 


Slaepe dormio 


slep 


slepon 


slaepen 


5. 


Blawe spire 


bleow 


bleowon 


blawen 


6. 










7. 


Gale cano 


gol 


golon 


galen 


8. 


Dwine tabesco 


dwan 


dwinon 


dwinen 




Gripe arripio 


grap 


gripon 


gripen 


9. 


Creope repo 


creap 


crupon 


cropen 


10. 


Dfeipeferio 


drap 


draepon 


drepen 


11. 


Cwele necor 


cwal 


cwaelon 


cwelen 


12. 


Swelle tumeo 


sweall 


swullon 


swollen 




Binde necto 


band 


bundon 


bunden. 



In the first edition, Professor Grimm made fourteen conjugations. 



ABSTRACT OF GRIMM. CCl 



9. 


Terminations of strong 


verbs. 












ind. pres. s. -e 


-est 


-eS 


sub. -e 


-e 


-e 




pi. -a« 


-a« 


-a« 


-en 


-en 


-651 




p. s. — 


-e 


— 


-e 


-e 


-e 




pi. -on 


-on 


-on 


-en 


-en 


-en 



itnp. s. — pi. -a^ ; inf. -an; part. pres. -ende; pp. -en. 



10. Bindan to bind, and gripan to gripe.' 



ind. pres. s. bind-e bind-est bind-e* grip-e grip-est grip-eS 

pi. bind-a<S bind-a<S bind-aiS grip-a<S grip-acS grip-a^ 

p. s. band bunde band grap gripe grap 

pi. bund-on bund-on bund-on grip-on grip-on grip-on 

sub. pres. s. bind-e bind-e bind-e grip-e grip-e grip-e 

pi. bind-en bind-en bind-en grip-en grip-en grip-en 

p. s. bund-e bund-e bund-e grip-e grip-e grip-e 

bund-en bund-en bund-en grip-en grip-en grip-en. 

imp. s. bind, grip; pi. bind-a«, grip-atS; inf. bind-an, grip-an; past. pres. bind-ende. 
grip-ende; pp^ bunden, gripen. 

Weak Verbs. 



11. There are two conjugations of weak verbs. 
Terminations of weak verbs. 



ind. pres. s. 


-e 


-St 


-« 


pi. 


-aS 


.a« 


-aS 


p.s. 


-de 


-dest 


-de 


pi. 


-don 


-don 


-don 



-•e 


-e 


-e 


-en 


-en 


-en 


-de 


-de 


-de 


den 


-den 


-den 



sub. pres. 



imp. s. — pi. -S ; inf. -an; part. pres. -ende; pp. -d. 

12. First conjugation, nerian to keep. 13. Second conjugation, sealfian to anoint. 

ind. pres. s. ner-je ner-est ner-etS sealf-ige sealf-ast sealf-a$ 

pi. ner-jaS ner-ja^ ner-ja« sealf-ja^ sealf-jatS sealf-ja^ 

p. s. ner-ede ner-edest ner-ede sealf-ode sealf-odest sealf-ode 

pi. ner-edon ner-edon ner-edon sealf-edon sealf-edon sealf-edon 

sub. pres. s. ner-je ner-je ner-je sealf-ige sealf-ige sealf-ige 

pi. ner-jen ner-jen ner-jen sealf-jon sealf-jon sealf-jon 

p. s. ner-ede ner-ede ner-ede sealf-ode sealf-ode sealf-ode 

pi. ner-eden ner-eden ner-eden sealf-eden sealf-eden sealf-eden. 

imp. s. ner-e; pi. ner-jatS; inf. ner-jan ; imp. s. sealfa; pi. sealf-jatS; inf. sealf-jan; 
part. pres. ner-jende; pp. ner-ed. part. pres. sealf-igende ; pp. gesealf.od. 

The Anomolous Verbs. 

14. Pres. ind. s. eom, eart, is ; pi. sind, sindon ; sub. si, si, si, or sig, or seo ; pi. 
sin, sin, sin ; p. was, waere, was ; pi. waron ; inf. wesan ; imp. wes ; pi. wesa^ ; 

* These examples are from the first edition, 1819. 

dd 



ceil ABSTRACT OF GRIMM. 

pres. part. Wesende; pp. gewesen Future or pres. beo or beom, bist, biS ; pi. beoS ; 

sub. beo ; pi. beon ; inf. beon ; imp. beo ; pi. beo^. — Mot, most, mot ; pi. moton ; 

p. moste Wat, wast, wat ; pi. witon ; p. wiste — Nat nescio, nast, nat; pi. nyton; 

p. nyste Ah possideo, age ? ah ; pi. ^gon ; p. khXe — Deah prosum, duge, deah ; 

pi. dugon ; p. duhte. — Mag, meaht, mag ; pi. m^gon ; p. meahte Sceal, scealt, 

sceal; pi. sculon ; p. sceolde Gemon memmi, Beo. 90, pi. gemunon ; p. gemunde. 

Dear, dearst or durre, dear; pi. durron ; p. dorste — pearf, l^urfe or Harft? I^earf; 

pi. )3urfon ; p. J^orfte — Can, canst, or const, or cunne,can; pi. cunnon ; p. cu<Se 

An, unne, an ; pi. unnon ; p. u^e — Wille, wilt, wille; pi. willacS ; p. wolde Nylle 

nolo, nylt, nylle; pi. nyllaS; p. nolde — Do, dest, detS; pl.^o^; p. dide, didest, dide; 
pi. didon ; inf. don ; pp. gedon — See Dictionary for gangan ire, buan habitare, ^c. 



EXPLANATION 



PRINCIPAL CONTRACTIONS. 



a. or aci. stands for active 
verb. 

ab. ablative case. 

ae. or ace. accusative case. 

adj. adjective. 

ad calc. ad calcem at the end. 

Adl. Adelung. 

adv. adverb. 

^If. ^Ifredus, v. Alf. 

Mlfr. ^Ifricus, v. Elj. 

Al. Alemannic from which the 
High Dutch or South Ger- 
man is derived. 

Alh. Resp. Albini responsa ad 
Sigewlfi interrogationes. 
Bibl. Bodl. Cod. Jun.xxiii. 
fol.122; xxiv. p. 300: Cod. 
civ. Bibl. C.C.C. Cant. S.5, 
p. 139: S. 17, p. 317, Bibl. 
Cott. Julius, E. 7, fol. 228. 

Alf. or ^If. Alfred, ^Ifredus, 
king of England, a.d. 890. 

an. anno in the year. 

Apol. Apollonius, v. Th. Apol. 

Arb. or Arab. Arabic. 

Arm.. Armenian. 

A.-S. Anglo-Saxon, or Anglo- 
Saxons. 

A.-S.-L. Anglo-Saxon laws. 

Asg. b/c. The Friesic Asega 
book. 

Asser. Asserius Menevensis, 
A.D. 900. 

Aihan. Athanasian Creed. 

Symb. Athanas.v. Symb. 

b. book. 

B. v, Brom. 

Bar. Barrington'sOrosiuSjSvo. 

London, 1773, v. pre/, p. xix. 

note, number 13. 
Bd. Venerable Bede, a. d. 730. 
Bd. S. or Sm. Bede, by Smith, 

Camb. fol. 1722, v., pre/. 

p. xix. note, number 6. 



Bd. W. or Wh. Bede, by Whe- 
lock, Cambridge, fol. 1644, 
V. pref. p. xix. note, num- 
ber 6. 

Bel. V. Fl. Flemish. , 

Ben. Benson's vocabularium 
Anglo-Saxonicum, Oxford, 
8vo. 1701, V. pref. p. xx. 
note, number 22. 

Beng. Bengalee language. 

Beo. Beowulf, by Thorkelin, 
4to. Copenhagen, 1815. 

Beo. K. Kemble, London, 

\%ZZ,2ndvol. 1837, w.pref. 
p. XX. note, number 15. 

Bl. Bilderdijk's Geslachtlijst. 

Boh. Bohemian. 

Box. or Boxh. Boxhornii Glos. 

Brem. Bremish Dictionary of 
the Low-German dialect a- 
bout Bremen, 5 vols. 1767. 

Bret. Celto Breton. 

Brit. British. 

Brock. Brockett's Glossary of 
North-country words, New- 
castle-upon-Tyne, 1825. 

Brom. Bromtonus, a.d. 1330. 

Bt. Boethius, v. pref. p. xix. 
note, number 11. 

Bt. Card. Boethius, Saxon and 
P'nglish, by Cardale, Pick- 
ering, 8vo. London, 1829, 
V. Bt. 

Bt. F. Fox's Boethius, Svo. 
London, 1835, v. Bt. 

Bt. R. or Rawl. Boethius, by 
Rawlinson, 8vo.Oxon. 1698, 
v. Bt. 

c. chapter. 

C. vel. Cot. Glossarii ^Elfrici 

exemplar Cottonianum Bibl. 

Cott. Jul. A. 2. 
calc. ad calcem at the end. 



Cant. Moys. or Cant. M. Can- 
ticum Moysis, at the end of 
Thwaites' Heptateuch, v. 
pref. p. xix. note, number 
10. 

C. v. Cot. 

Cd. or Cadm. Caedmon. The 
references are to the figures, 
within brackets, in the body 
of the page of Junius's edit, 
and to the figures, within 
brackets, between the co- 
lumns of Mr. Thorpe's, v. 
pref. p. xix. note, number 7. 

Cd. Jun. Junius's Caedmon, 
small 4to. Amsterdam, 1655, 
v. Cd. 

Cd. Th. Caedmon, by Thorpe, 
Black & Co. London, 1832, 
v. Cd. 

Cel. Celtic. 

Charl. Charlemagne. 

Chau. Chaucer. 

Chi. Chaldee. 

Chr. Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 
V. pref. p. xix. note, num- 
ber 9. 

Chr. Gib. Gibson's Chronicle, 
4to. Oxford, 1692, v. Chr. 

Chr. Ing. Ingram's Chronicle, 
4to. London, 1823, v. Chr. 

C. Mt. Mk. &c. the Gospels of 
Mattliew, Mark, &c. in the 
Pub. Lib. Cambridge, Wan- 
ley's Catalogue, p. 152. 

Cod. Ex., Exeter MS. v. Wan- 
ley's Catalogue, p. 279, but 
especially Conybeare's illus- 
tration of A.-S. poetry, p. 9 
and 189. 

Coll. Mon. or Coll. Monast. Col- 
loquium Monachicum ; Mr. 
Thorpe's Analecta, p. 101 j 
Wanley, p. ^o and 193. 

comp. comparative degree. 



CCIV 



CONTRACTIONS. 



Con&.Conybeare's Illustrations 
of A.-S. Poetry, 8vo. Lon- 
don, 1826, V. pref. p. xx. 
note, number 16. 

row/, conjunction. 

Corn. Cornish. 

Cop. Coptic. 

Co^.GlossariiiElfrici exemplar 
Cottonianum Bibl. Cott. Jul. 
A. 2. British Museum. 

C. Ps. Cantabrigiense Psalte- 
rium : the Saxon psalms in 
the Public Library at Cam- 
bridge, Wanley's Cat. p. 152. 

C.R. Ben. Cantabrigiensis Re- 
gula Benedicti, Bibl. C.C.C. 
Cant. S. 6, p. 263. 

Z).Vocabularium Dewesianum, 
scilicet a Job. Jocelino di- 
gestum, a Sim. D'Ewes au- 
tem Barto.descriptum, Bibl. 
Cott. Tit. A. 15, 16. 

d. or dat. dative case. 

Dan. Danish. 

def. the definite declension. 

Deut. Deuteronomy, v. Gen. 

Dial. Gregory's Dialogues, 
translated into A.-S, by 
King Alfred, v. Wanl. p. 71, 
92, 99, 130, 212. 

Doug, or Doug. Virg. The 
translation of Virgil into 
Scottish metre, by Gawin 
Douglas, Bp. of Dunkeld, 
born 1474, died 1521. 

Bun. the historian Sim. Dunel- 
mensis, a.d. 1164. 

Dut. Dutch. 

E. V. Ethel. 

Elf. Elfric, an Jhhot, and after- 
wards Archbishop of Can- 
terbury, died A. D. 1005. 
The great luminary of his 
age. He translated the 
Scriptures into A.-S., also 
Sermons, Grammar, &c., v. 
pref. p. xviii. note, num- 
bers 1, 4, 8, and 10. 

Elf Can. Elfric' s Canons, Wilk. 
p. 153, V. L. Can. Eccl. 

Elf. ep. Elfric's Epistles, v. 
Wilk. p. 161. 

Elf. gr. or gl. or Elf gr. Som. 
Elfric's Grammar or Glos- 
sary at the end of Somner's 
Dictionary, Elf. gr. 9, 26, is 
chapter 9, and xxvi. in the 
body of the page, v. pref. 
p. xix. note, number 8. 

Eff. T. Elfric concerning the 
Old and New Testament, 
V. pref. p. xviii. note, num- 
ber 1. 

Els. Elstob (Miss) Homily of 
St. Gregory. The portraits 
of Miss E. and the Pope are 
beautifully engraved in the 
initial letters of the Homily, 



v. pref. p. xix. note, num- 
ber 12. 

Em. I. The Friesic Emsiger 
Landregt, or code of the 
country of Ems, a.d. 1276. 

ep. Epist. Epistle. 

etc. et caetera. 

Ethel, the Latin writer Ethel- 
redus. Abbas Rievallis, a.d. 
1166. 

Ethelw. the Latin writer Ethel- 
werdus, a.d. 977. 

Ex. Exodus, V. Gen. 

f. Feminine, or, of the feminine 
gender. 

F. v. Flor. 

Fin. Finlandish. 

Fl. Flemish, or Belgic. 

/. fluvius. 

Flor. Florentius, a Latin His- 
torian, A.D. 1117. 

Fr. French. 

Franc. Francic. 

Fr. Jud. Fragmentum libri Ju- 
dithaejattheendofThwaites' 
Heptateuch, v. Jdth. 

Frs. Friesic from Hettema, — 
with H. from Halbertsma. 

Frs. c. Friesic of the cities. 

Frs. h. Friesic of Hindelopen. 

Frs. I. Old Friesic laws, by 
Wierdsma. 

Frs. V. Friesic of the villages, 
or Country Friesic. 

g. or gen. genitive case. 
Gael. Gaelic, the language of 

the highlands of Scotland. 

Gen. Genesis, from Thwaite's 
Heptateuch, Svo. Oxon. 
1698, V. Thw. 

Ger. German. 

Gerv. the Latin writer Ger- 
vasius, A.D. 1200, 

Gib. Gibson's Saxon Chronicle, 
V. Chr. 

gl. or glos. glossary. 

Gm. I. IL or III. Deutsche 
Grammatik von Dr. Jacob 
Grimm, 3 vols. Svo. Gdt- 
tingen, 1822, 1826, 1831: 
references are to vol., page, 
and line. 

Gm. Myth. Deutsche Mytho- 
logie, von Jacob Grimm,8vo. 
Gottingen, 1835. 

Gm. Recht. Deutsche Rechtsal- 
terhiimer, von Jacob Grimm, 
Gottingen, 8vo. 1828. 

Gr. Dial, or Greg. Gregorii 
PapaeDialogi, Saxonice red- 
diti a Werfertho episcopo 
Wigorniensi, Bibl. Bodl. 
Hatt. 100: 1, Coll. C, C. 
Cant. S. 10: Cott. Otbo,C. 1, 
fol. 136, V. Wanley, p. 70, 
92, 114, 153, 168, 217, &c. 
V. Dial. 
Gres. V, Gr, Dial. 



Grk. Greek. 

Gr. Prooem. Gregorii Papae 
Prooemium, Preface to Gre- 
gory's Pastoral Care in A.-S. 
V. Wanley, p. 153. 

Guth. Guthlaci monachi vita 
etmiracula. Bibl. Cott. Vesp. 
D. 21. 

H. Halbertsma, a writer on 
the Friesic language. 

Hag. the Latin writer Hagus- 
taldensis Prior, Joannes, 
A.D. 1180. 

Heb. Hebrew. 

Hem. or Heming, Heming's 
Chartulary; HemingiChar- 
tularium Eccl. Wigornien- 
sis, edidit T. Hearn, Svo. 
Oxon. 1723, tom. ii. 

Herb. Herbarium, scilicet L. 
Apuleii Madaurensis, Sax- 
onice redditum. Bibl. Bodl. 
Hatt. 100: Jun. 58 : Bibl. 
Cott. Vitellius, C. 3, fol, 19. 
In Wan. p. 73—75; 176— 
180, are the A.-S. names of 
plants, and A.-S. extracts, 
V. L. M. 

Het. Hettema's Friesic Dic- 
tionary, with explanations 
in Dutch, Svo. Leeuwarden, 
1832. 

Hexdem. Hexaemeron : i. e. 
Homilia Saxonica de Dei 
opere sex diebus exacto, 
Bibl. Bodl. Jun. 23 : Wan- 
ley, p. 36 ; Wanley, p. 40, 
item 47 : C. C. C. Cant. S. 6, 
p. 16:S. 17, p. l:Cott. Otho, 
B, 10, fol. 8. 

Hie. or Hick. Hickes' The- 
saurus, London, 3 vols. fol. 
1705, V. pref. p. xx. note, 
number 21. 

Hind. Hindoo, Hindostanne. 

H. Mt. Mk. &c. Evangeliorum 
secundum Matth. Marc, &:c. 
exemplar Hattonianum. 
Bibl. Bodl. Hatt. 65: Wan- 
ley, p. 76, 

Horn, homily. 

Horn. Greg, the Homily of St. 
Gregory, v. Els. 

Hovd. the Latin writer Hov- 
denus, a, d, 1204. 

Hun. Hungarian, 

Hun. the Latin writer, Henr. 
Huntingdoniensis, A.D. 1148. 

Hymn. Hymnarium, Bibl. Cott. 
Jul. A. 6. 

ih. ibidem, the same. 
Id. or Icel. Icelandic. 
id. idem, the same. 
i. e. id est, that is. 
imp. imperative, 
imprs. impersonal. 
ind. indicative mood. 
indecl. indeclinable. 



CONTRACTIONS. 



CCV 



indf. or indef. indefinite tense, 
present and future tenses. 

inf. infinitive. 

Ing. Ingram, v, Chr. Ing. 

Ing. Led. Ingram's A.-S. Lec- 
ture, 4to. Oxford, 1807. 

Ing. or Ingul. the Latin writer 
Ingulphus, A. D. 1109. 

Ingul. Contin. Ingulphi Con- 
tinuatores, a. d. 1486. 

interjec. interjection. 

Ir. Irish. 

irr. irregular. 

Zy<Z. Isidore deNativitate,trans- 
lated into Francic, about 
A. D. 800. 

It. Italian. 

Jap. Gysbert Japicx, a Frie- 
sian poet who wrote about 
A.D. 1650. 

Jdth. or Fr. Jud. Judith, a frag- 
ment of an A. - S. poem, 
printed as prose at the end 
of Thwaites's Heptateuch, 
but very properly as poetry 
in Mr. Thorpe's Analecta, 
p. 131, V. Thw. 

Jn. 1, 3: 7, 6, 8. St. John's 
Gospel, (byJunius andMar- 
shall, 4to. Dordrecht, 1665, 
V. pref. p. xviii. note, num- 
ber 3,) 1st chap. 3rd verse : 
7th chap, the 6th and 8th 
verse. 

Joh. V. Gen. 

Jos. Joshua, V. Gen. 

Jud. Judges, V. Gen. 

Jun. Junius. 

Ker. Kero an Alemannic or 
High-German writer about 
A.D. 800. 

Kil. Kilian, the compiler of 
a Dutch Dictionary, with 
Latin explanations.4to. Ant- 
werp, 1599 : Utrecht, 1777. 

K7ii. the Latin writerKnigh ton, 
A.D. 1395. 

I. line. 

L. Anglo-Saxon Laws, by Wil- 
- kins, fol. Lond. 1721, v. pr^/. 
p. xviii. note, number 2. 

L. JEnh. the Concilium ^En- 
hamense inWilkins's Anglo- 
Saxon Laws, p. 119. 

L.Alf. Leges iElfredi, W. p. 28. 

L. Alf. Guth. Leges ^Ifredi 
et Guthruni, W. p. 47. 

L. Alf. pol. The second divi- 
sion of King Alfred's Laws, 
W, p. 34. 

L. Athel. Leges ^Ethelstani, 
W. p. 54. 

L. Can. Eccl. and L. Elf. Can. 
Liber Canonum Ecclesias- 
ticorum, W. p. 153. 

L. Can. Edg. Canones editi sub 
Eadgaro rege, W. p. 82. 



L. Can. Edg. conf. Canones 
editi sub Eadgaro rege de 
confessione, W. p. 87. 

L. Can. Edg. pen. or poen. 
modus imponendi poeniten- 
tiam, W. p. 89. 

L. Can. Edg. pen. or poen. magn. 
de magnatibus, W. p. 

m. 

L. Can. Edg. pol. or Pol. the 

first division of KingEdgar's 

laws, W. p. 76. 
L. Cnut. or L. Cnut. Eccl. Le- 
ges Cnuti regis, W. p. 126. 
L. Cnut. pol. the second divi- 
sion of Canute's laws, W. 

p. 133. 
L. Const. Liber Constitutio- 

num, IF. p. 147. 
L. Const. Ethel. Liber Consti- 

tutionum tempore regis JSa- 

thelredi, W. p. 106. 
L. Eccl. Liber legum Ecclesi- 

asticarum, W. p. 173. 
L. Edg. Leges Eadgari, p. 76. 
L. Edg. pol. the first division 

of King Edgar's laws, W. 

p. 76. 
L. Edg. sup. Legum Eadgari 

supplementum, W. p. 79. 
L. Edm. Leges Edmundi regis, 

W. p. 72. 
L. Edw. Leges Eadweardi, W. 

p. 48. 
L. Edw. Guth. Foedus Eadwe- 
ardi et Guthruni regum, 

W. p. 51. 
L. Elf Can. Liber ^Ifrici Ca- 
nonum, W. p. 153, V. L. Can. 

Eccl. 
L. Elf. ep. MWici Epistolae, 

W. p. 161. 
L. Ethel. Leges ^thelredi, 

W. p. 102. 
L. Ethel. Anlaf. or Anl. Leges 

iEthelredi cum Anlavo, PV. 

p. 104. 
L. Ethelh. Leges -^thelbirhti, 

W. p. 1. 
L. Hloth. Leges Hlotharii et 

Eadrici, fF. p. 7. 
L. In. Leges Inae, W- p. 14. 
L. Lond. or Lund. Judicia Ci- 

vitatis Lundoniae, W. p. Q5. 
L. North, pres. Northumbren- 

sium presbyterorum leges, 
W. p. 98. 
L. Wal. Senatus Consultum 

de Monticolis Wallise, W. 

p. 125. 
L. Wiht. Leges Wihtraedi, W. 

p. 10. 
Lamh. Lambard'sAnglo-Saxon 

laws, v. L. 
Lane. Lancashire. 
Lap. Laplandish. 
Lat. mid. Latin of the middle 

and later age. 
Lett. Lettish. 
Lev, Leviticus, v. Gen. 



Lin. Linnaeus. 

Lip. Lipsius's Glossary, Opera 
Omnia Versal. 4 vols. 8vo. 
vol. ii. p. 988. 

Lk. St. Luke's Gospel, v. Jn. 

L.M. Liber Medicinalis, v. 
Herb, a Baldo quodam, ex 
scriptis Marcelli, Scribonii 
Largi, C. Plinii,aliorumque 
Medicorum Latinorum, uti 
censet Wanleius, compila- 
tus, Bibl. D. Jac. Westm. 
V. the Titles of Chapters in 
A. - S. and quotations in 
Wanley's Cat. 176—180, 72. 

L. Lambeth Psalter, v. Lps. 
and M. Ps. 

Lps. or L. Ps. Lambeth Psal- 
ter, Bibl. Lambeth, 4to. 188, 
Art. 5. 

Lup. Lupus's Sermons, in 
Hickes'sThes. vol.ii. p. 99. 
Reference to sections and 
lines of sections. 



masculine gender. 
M.A. MonasticonAnglicanum. 
Malm. Will. Malmesburiensis, 

A.D. 1140. 

Mann. Manning's edition of 
Lye's A.-S. Diet, particu- 
larly theSupplement : 2 vols, 
fol. v. pref p. XX. note, 
number 22. 

Mart. Martinii Lexicon phi- 
lologicum, 2 vols. fol. 1711. 

Martyr. Mart, or Menol. Mar- 
tyrologium, sive potius Me- 
nologium seu Calendarium 
poeticum, or The poetical 
calendar of the Anglo-Sax- 
ons, Hickes's Thes. I. p. 
203, Fox, 8vo. London, 
1830, V. pref p. xx. note, 
number 17. 

Med. ex Quadr: Medicina ex 
quadrupedibus, Bibl. Bodl. 
Hatt 100, Art. 4, Jun. 58, 
Art. 2, Bibl. Cott. Vitell. 
C. 3, fol. 75: Wanley, p.75. 

Menol. the Menology, v. Mar- 
tyr. 

Menol. F. Fox, v. Martyr. 

Mk. Mark, v. Jn. 

Moes. Moeso-Gothic, the ear- 
liest High- German dialect 
yet known, preserved in the 
Gospels, &c. A. D. 370, v. 
Jn. 

Mone. Mone's Quellen und 
Forschungen zurGeschichte 
der teutschen Literaturund 
Sprache, 8vo. Leipzig, 1830. 

Mone. A. —— the Glossary 
(in p. 314) of natural his- 
tory. The MS. is of the 
10th century, and is in the 
Jesuits' Library at Brussels, 
in 4to. No. 539. 



CCVl 



CONTRACTIONS. 



Mom. B. Mone's Quellen und 
Forschungcn zurGeschichte 
der teutschen Literatur und 
Sprache,8vo. Leipzig, 1830; 
theA.-S.Gloss.(inp.329),on 
Aldhelm's Latin treatise De 
laude virginitatis, taken from 
the Burgundian Library at 
Brussels, No. 471. 

Mone C. — the Gloss, (in 
p. 442) from the Brussels 
MS. No. 539. 

Mons. or Mons. Glos. Monsee 
Glossary, so called from a 
Codex of the Convent Mon- 
see, published under the 
title Glossae Monseenses, by 
B. Pez, in Thes. Anecdoto- 
rum, nov. I. col. 319 — 414. 

M. P^.Mareschalli Psalterium ; 
i. e. Versio Psalmorum in 
Bibl. Tho. Comitis Arun- 
deliae, nee non Comitis Ma- 
reschalli Angliae, quam Re- 
gise Societati dedit Hen. 
Dux. Norf. Ao. 1679. 

M.S. Manuscript. 

M.SS. Manuscripts. 

M.S. C. Manuscriptus codex 
Cantabrigiensis. 

M.S. T. Manuscriptus codex 
in bibliotheca Coll. S. Tri- 
nitatis Cantabrigiae. 

Mt. Matthew, v. Jn. 

n. neut. neuter, or, of the neu- 
ter gender. 

N. Noeli (Laur.) Vocabula- 
rium; in Bibl, Bodl. 

Nat. S. Greg, a Homily on the 
Birth-day of St. Gregory, 
V. Els. 

Nath. Nathanis Judaei legatio 
fabulosa ad Tib. Csesarem; 
in Bib!. Publ. Cantabr. un- 
de descripsit Junius id quod 
extat apographum in Bodl. 
Jun. 74. Art. 2. 

Nic. or Nicod. Nicodemi pseu- 
do-evangelium, at the en* 
of Thwaites's Heptateuch, 
V. Thw. 

nn. a noun. 

nam. the nominative case. 

Norse. Norse, or Old Danish, 
spoken throughout Scandi- 
navia, the nearest approach 
to which is the Icelandic. 

Norw. Norwegian. 

Not. Notker's translation of 
the Psalms into Alemannic 
or High - German, about 
A.D. 1020. 

Num. or Numb. Numbers, v. 
Gen. 

O. Ger. Old High-German. 
Ors. Orosius, by Barrington, 

Saxon and English, Svo. 

London, 1773, v. Bar. 



Ot. Ott. or Ottf. Otfrid's poeti- 
cal paraphrase of the Gos- 
pels in Alemannic or High- 
German, published by Graff, 
4to. Konigsberg, 1831. 

p. or P. with figures following 
denotes page. 

p. or per. perfect tense. 

par. paragraph. 

part, participle. 

Past. Gregorii P. Liber de cura 
Pastorali, Saxonice reddi- 
tus ab ^Elfredo Rege. Bibl. 
Bodl. Hatt. 88, Jun. 53, 2 : 
Bibl.Publ.Cant.C.C.C.Cant: 
S.l, Coll. Trin. Cant: Cott. 
Otho, B. 2, v. Dial, and Gr. 
Dial. 

Pecc. Med. Peccatorum Medi- 
cina ; in Bibl. Cott. Tib. A. 
3, fol. 93, unde suum de- 
sumpsit Junius, in Bodl. 
Jun. 59. 

Pers. Persian. 

pi. plu. plural. 

Plat. Plat - Dutch, or Low - 
German spoken in the flat 
or north part of Germany. 

pcen. pen. or pn. pcenitentia, 
poenitens in the Laws, \.L. 
Can. Edg. pen. 

Port. Portuguese. 

pp. perfect participle. 

pr. or pref. preface. 

prep, preposition. 

pres. present tense. 

Pri. Price's edition of War- 
ton's History of English 
Poetry, 4 vols. 8vo. 1824. 

pron. pronoun. 

Prooem. R. Cone. Prooemium 
Regularis Concordiae An- 
glicae nationis Monachorum 
Sanctimonialiumque. Edi- 
dit in notis suis ad Eadmeri 
historiam Novorum, p. 145, 
CI. Job. Seldenus, e Bibl. 
Cott. Tib. A. 3, fol. 1. 

Prov. Glossae in Proverbia Sa- 
lomonis ; in Bibl. Bodl. Jun. 
71, Art. 2, desumptae vero 
a Junio e Cott. Vesp. D. 6. 

Ps. Psalms, by Spelman, 4to. 
London, 1640, v. pref. p. 
xix. note, number 5. The 
division of the Vulgate is 
used, which varies a little 
from the English division 
of the Psalms and verses. 

P.S. Paraphrasis Saxonica, 
Caedmon's Paraphrase of 
Genesis, v. Cd. 

Ps. Th. Psalms, by Thorpe, 
8vo. Oxford, 1835. 

q. quere, doubt. 
q.d. quasi dicat. 
Q.v. or q. V. Quod vide. 



R. Reubenii Glossarium ; i. e. 
iElfrici Giossarii exemplar 
inter raembranas CI. Pet. 
Paul. Reubenii repertum, 
et a Francisco Junio integre 
descriptum, Bibl. Bodl. Jun. 
71,1. 

Rab. Rhabanus Maurus, who 
wrote in Alemannic or High 
. German, about a. d. 850. 

Rawl. Rawlinson, v. Bt. R. 

R. Ben. Regulae Benedictinae 
exemplar aliud. 

R. Cone. Regularis Concordia 
Angliae nationis Monacho- 
rum Sanctimonialiumque, 
Bibl.Bodl.Tib. A. 3: Claud, 
D. 3. 

resp. responsum, answer. 

Ric. Ricardus, Prior Hagus- 
tald, who wrote in Latin, 
about A.D. 1184. 

R. Mt. MIc. &c. Evangeliorum 
secundum Matth. Marc. &c. 
exemplar Rushworthianum, 
in Bibl. Bodl. v. autem Wanl. 
Cat. p. 82. Written about 
the 10th century,v.jDre/. § 21, 
p. X xiii. 

R. T. or R. Th. or Th. R. 
Mr. Thorpe's Translation of 
Rask's Anglo-Saxon Gram- 
mar, 8vo. Copenhagen, 
1830. 

Rubr. Rubric. 

Rus. Russian. 

s. or sing, singular. 

Sal. Salic laws, the laws of the 
Francs, published by Char- 
lemagne, A.D. 798, V. Schil- 
ter's Thes. vol. ii. p. 49. 

Sans. Sanscrit, the ancient 
Hindoo language, v. pref. 
p. ix. § 20. 

sc. scilicet, namely. 

S. C. de Mont. Wall. Senatus 
Consultum de Monticolis 
Wallise, v. W. p. 125, v. L. 
Wal. 

Schw. Schwabenspiegel. 

Saint. Scintillarius, sive Liber 
Scintillarum ; i. e. Senten- 
tiarum ex S. Scriptura et 
Patrum libris a Beda Vene- 
rabili coUectarum. Bibl. D. 
Jac. Westm. Excerpsit au- 
tem quasdam ex his CI. Ju- 
nius, quae extant in Bibl. 
Bodl. Jun. 40. 

Scot. Scottish. 

Ser. or Serm. jJ^lfric's Sermon 
on Creation, v. Elements 
of A.-S. Grammar, p. 272, 
note (•). 

Shakes. Shakespeare. 

Slav. Slavonic. 

Sol. vel Solil. Soliloquia Au- 
gustini selecta et Saxonice 
reddita ab jElfredo Rege. 



CONTRACTIONS. 



CCVIl 



Bibl.Cott. Vitell.A. 15,foI. 
1, unde descripsit Junius 
quod in Uodl. Jun. 70. 

Som. Somner's A.-S. Dictio- 
nary, V. pref. p- XX. note, 
number 22. 

Somn. Somniorum diversitas, 
Bibl. Cott. Tib. A. 3, fol. 
36 and 40, unde descripsit 
Junius quae extant in Bodl. 
Jun. 43, Art. 1, 2, 3, and 44, 
Art. 12. 

Sp. Spanish. 

Spen. Spencer, the poet. 

Spl. or Supl. Supplement. 

Stub, the Latin writer Stubbes, 
A. D. 1360 

suh. subjunctive mood. 

sup. superlative degree. 

Supl. The Supplement. 

Swd. or Swed. Swedish. 

Symb. Athanas. Athanasian 
Creed. 

Syr. Syriac. 

Th. R. Thorpe's translation of 
Rask's A.-S. Grammar, 8vo. 
1830. 

Th. An. Thorpe's Analecta 
Anglo-Saxonica, Svo. Lon- 
don, 1834. 

Th. Apol. Apollonius, of Tyre, 



by B. Thorpe, 12mo. Lon- 
don, 1834. 
Tart. Tartaric. 
Tat. Tatian's Harmony of the 

Gospels in Low - German, 

about A. D. 890. 
Thork. Thorkelin's edition of 

Beowulf, '^.pref. p. xx. note, 

number 15. 
Thorn, a Latin writer, about 

A.D. 1390. 
Thw. Thwaites, editor of the 

Heptateuch, v. pref. p. xix. 

note, number 10: 21, 3. 
T. Ps. Psalterii exemplar in 

Bibl. Coll. S. Trin. Cant. 
T. r.Taylor's edition of Tooke's 

Diversions of Purley, 2 vols. 

Svo. 1829. 
Turner. Hist, of A.-S. ; the re- 
ferences are to the 4th edit. 

3 vols. Svo. 1823. 

V. vide, see. 

V. a verb. 

V. a. or act. verb active. 

V. irr. verb irregular. 

V. l. vide locum. 

V. n. verb neuter. 

V. Ps. or Vps. Vossianum Psal- 
terium. Exemplar scil. quod 
ab Is. Vossio accepit Fr. Ju- 



nius. Extat autem in Bibl. 
Bodl. Jun. 27. 

IV. or Wilk. Wilkins' A.-S. 
laws, v. L. 

W. V. Wan. 

Wac. or Wach. Wachter's Glos- 
sarium Germanicum, Lips, 
fol. 1737. 

W. B. or Wh. or Whel. Whe- 
lock's Bede, v. pref. p. xix. 
note, nuipber 6. 

Wan. or Wanl. Cat. Wanley's 
Catalogue of A.-S. M.SS. 
forming the 3rd vol. of 
Hickes's Thesaurus, v. pref. 
p. XX. note, number 21. 

Wei. Welsh. 

West, the Latin writer Mat- 
theus Westmonasteriensis, 
A.D. 1377. 

Wil. Willeram's paraphrase of 
the Canticle in Francic, 
about A.D. 1070. 

Weston.V>.Ti. F.R.S.(Stephen). 
A specimen of the Con- 
formity of the European 
languages, particularly the 
English, with the Oriental 
languages, especially the 
Persian, London, Svo. 1802, 
price 7^. 



In the English and Latin Indexes the references are to the numbers and letters at the head 
of the page : as, Mulberries 47a, is found under number 47a, at the head of the page in the 
Dictionary, and the first column after a in the margin. 



General Remarks upon the Gender and Declension of Anglo-Saxon Nouns. 

Every noun, which has the vom. s. in -a is vi. and makes the g-. s. iTU-^db. All m. nouns 
ending in a consonant, or -e, make the g. s. in -es : those nouns which tllCinate in -dom, -els, 
-end, -ere, -ing, -erd, -ord, -scipe ; -feld afield, plain ; -ford a ford; -ham a home ; -hleew rising 
ground ; -stede a place ; -tun an inclosure, a town, &c. ; likewise all nouns, making the nom. and 
ac. pi. in -as, are all m. and, therefore, make the g. s. in -es. 

All/, nouns, which have the nom. s. in -e, make the g. s. in -an. Every/, noun, ending in 
a consonant, such as words in -ceaster a city ; -dun a hill; -scir, -scyr, a shire ; -stow a place, 
&c. has the g. s. in -e : indeed, every noun having the g. s. in -e is/. 

All nouns, having the nom. and ac. pi. in -u, are n., and, like all n. nouns, ending in a con- 
sonant, make the g. s. in -es. 

Observations upon inflections, useful fl)r finding words in the Dictionary. 
In nouns, when a comes before a single consonant, or st. so followed by a, o, or u, and, in 
adjectives, when a comes before a single consonant followed by a, e, o, or u, the nom. s. is found 
by rejecting all the letters after the second consonant, or st. sc. and by changing a into a : as 
in the nouns fatum with vats, stafas letters, gastas guests, by casting away um, as, as, and 
changing a into ce, we have faet a vat, staef a letter ; gaest a guest, and in the adjectives, lates, 
latena of late, latum to late, se smala the small, smalost smallest, se smalesta the smallest, by 
taking away es, ena, um, a, ost, esta, and changing a into ^, we have laet late, and smael small. 



Py. 



Synopsis of the terminattb&s of verbs. 



Simple verbs, or 


verbs which have the p. of \ 


Complex verbs, or verbs which 


two or more syllables. 






*^ave the p. a monosyllable. 


v/riu^'^ 


INDICATIVE, 


indf 


INDICATIVE, indf. 


^ 


1.* 


2.* 


3.* 


^ 'V - thou, 


-e 
-sta 


-ige 
-ast 


-ed 

-st, -est«* 


i he. 


-«b 


-a« 


-, -^, -e« 


pi toe, ye, they. 


-a«, -e 


-ia«, -ige 


-aS,-e. 


(^f'¥A , 


perfect. 
-dec 


-ode 


perfect. 


1 « thou, 

' '^ ' he. 


-dest 


-odest 


-e^ 


-de 


-ode 


e 


pi. we, ye, they, 


-don 


-odon, -edon 


-on 




SUBJUNCTIVE 


, indf 


SUBJUNCTIVE, indf 


s. if I, thou, he, 


-e 


-ige 


-e 


pi. if we, ye, they, 


•on, -an 


-ion, -iafl^ 


-on, en 




perfect. 




perfect. 


s. if I, thou, he. 


-de 


-ode 


-e« * 


pi. if we, ye, they, 


-don, -den 


-odon, -eden 


-on, en 




IMPERATIVE, 


&c. 


IMPERATIVE, &C. 


s. 
pi 


-aiS, -e 


-a 

-ia*, -ige 


-e,-a« 


inf. to, 


-enne 


-igenne 


-anne 


part, -ing, 


-ende 


-igende 


-ende 


pp. 


-ed 


-od 


-en. 



1.* By substituting the inf. -an, for -e, -st, -de, &c., and prefixing the radical part of the 
verb, as baern-e, baern-st, baern-de, we have the inf. baern-an to burn. » -tst is changed into 
-dan in the inf. as \>u laetst thou leadest, becomes laedan to lead, b -t is changed into -tan, as 
he gret he greets, becomes gretan to greet : -i, after a vowel, is -^an, as he cytS he tells, cy<5an 
to tell. •= -hte is the inf. -htan, or -ccan, as p. he plihte he plighted, inf. plihtan ; he rehte he 
cared for, inf. reccan. In the p. and pp. -eal-, before -de, or -d, is the inf. -ellan, as tealde, 
geteald told, inf. tellan to tell : -eah- before -te, -t is inf. -eccan, as Jjeahte thatched, inf. Jjcc- 
can to thatch. 

2.* By substituting -ian for -ige, -ast, -ode, &c. as luf-ige, luf-ode, we have luf-ian to love. 

3.* By substituting -an for -e, -st, -est, &c., and changing the vowels of the first syllable as 
in the following directions, the inf. is found. ^ In the 1st and 2nd persons indf ce, e are generally 
from a of the inf. as ]}\x baecst thou bakest, he baecS he bakes, inf. bacan to bake : \>n stenst thou 
standest, he stent he stands, inf. standan to stand : y is from e, eo, or u, as Jju ytst thou eatest, he 
yt he eats, inf. etan to eat: — \>\x cyst thou choosest, he cyst he chooses, inf. ceosan to choose : — 
he sycS he sucks, inf. sucan to suck. ^ The 1st and 3rd persons end in the last consonant of 
the verb, and change the preceding vowel : thus, o and sometimes eo in the p. are from the 
inf. a; but eo in the p. is generally from ea ; as p. he stod he stood, from inf. standan to stand ; 
p. he bleow he blew, inf. blawan to blow ; he beot he beat, inf. beatan to beat. The p. ea, ee, and 
the pp. before II, If, Ig, It, rp, rf, rg, &c. are from the inf. e, eo, or « ; as, p. he mealt he 
melted, pp. molten melted, from inf. meltan to melt ; he staerf he died, pp. storfen died, inf. 
steorfan to die ; p. cleaf clove, pp. clofen cloven, inf. clufan to cleave. The a of the p. and u or 
i of the pp. are fr^m i of the inf. p. he sang he sang ; pp. sungen sung; inf. singan to sing : — he 
bat he bit, pp. biten bitten, inf. bitan to bite. 



■7}uu^^ 



